TOPIC: GRADOS
LECTURE 5
Roman urban planning is a direct continuation of Greek urban planning traditions.
There are three periods in the history of Rome :
1) royal (753 - 510 BC),
2) republican (510 - 27 BC),
3) imperial (from 27 BC to 476 AD)
The most characteristic features of Roman urban planning were formed under the influence of Etruscan culture. Etruscan cities had a regular layout (the town of Miza - modern. Marzabotto) and a high culture of technical equipment of the streets. The width of the main streets was 15 m, they had paving, raised sidewalks, stones - crossings, channels for gutters. Everything is made of stone.
In (616 - 510 BC), residential buildings with atriums and temples on high podiums were built in Rome. The Tuscan order began to form. Played a big role
Hellenistic traditions. The following types of structures were borrowed from the Greeks: theater, stadium, palestra, peristyle of residential buildings.
A special section of Roman urban planning art is made up of the completion of Greek ensembles by Roman architects in almost all cities of Greece: Olympia, Miletus, Athens, Egyptian Alexandria, Pergamum, etc.
The Romans treated the ancient Greek architecture with great care, built mostly ordinary buildings, believing that they were improving the unfinished ensembles of the past. Striving for completeness and integrity of the architectural and planning composition was one of the main artistic principles of Roman urban planning.
The emergence of Rome is associated with the name of Tsar Romulus, who founded the city on the Palatine Hill ("Square Rome") according to Etruscan customs (fortune-telling, signs, furrow, moat à fortress walls. Inside the walls there is a city - urbs, around the walls of the pomerium.
V royal period in the valley between the hills, a community center arises, after the drainage of the valley (the oldest hydrotechnical structure in Rome - the cloaca of Maximus).
The city spreads to the neighboring hills, a radial system of roads appears, in 578 - 533. BC. the city is surrounded by walls that surround most of the hills.
V republican period temples arose on the Ancient Forum and the Capitoline Hill. Residential buildings - from adobe bricks and wood.
Imperial period associated with the Punic Wars (Puni - Phoenicians who founded Carthage). As a result of the 1st Punic War (264 - 241 BC), the islands of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia were conquered.
2nd - (218 - 201 BC) - Spain
3rd - (149 - 146 BC) - Carthage
During the wars, roads and bridges were built and paved. Along the roads there are road pillars - billions. The starting point was a pillar on the Capitol Hill in Rome.
Along the roads, at a distance of a day's march, the Romans built cities like military camps. In the center was the praetorium - the tent of the commander-in-chief - the praetor. On the left side is the treasurer's (quaestor's) tent - a questorium. On the right side of the forum is the tent of the legate (assistant to the praetor). Along the main street were the tents of the tribunes, the main military leaders - six in each legion and the prefects - (chiefs - caretakers).
The main street is 30 m wide, Pretoria street 15 m.The total length of the camp for two legions is 645 m.
Cities - colonies.
The breakdown of the urban area began with the definition of the geometric center of the city and the definition of the direction of the two main streets "cardo" - north - south direction and "decumanus maximus" - west - east. In the future, the orientation was not so strict. Streets of secondary importance were laid parallel to the directions of the main streets.
Decumanus maximus - 12 m wide.
Cardo - 6 m
Minor streets - 4 m
The main crossroads of the city - tetrans- distinguished by a special architectural structure - tetrapil- a cubic building with driveways.
The tetrapil was replaced by four monumental pillars located at the main city crossroads.
The entrances to the city were marked by triumphal arches (beautiful city gates).
The size of the cities did not exceed 14.7 hectares (Cremona). Bologna and Florence (10 ha).
Aosta (26 - 25 BC) 724 x 572 m - the size of the city.
Large quarters: 143 x 181 m. Amphitheater, theater, Terme, temple. Triumphal Arch.
By the beginning of the imperial period, Rome was a city with land and sea roads diverging from it, connecting it with such remote territories as North Africa, Asia Minor, Spain, Britain, etc. Fortified regular cities were located along the roads. Rome resembled a huge spider that “plugged” a vast territory with a web of roads and settlements, more than 4 thousand kilometers long.
At the end of the 1st century BC. Octavian Augustus took all military power (the imperium) into his own hands and received the right to be called emperor.
It was golden age of thetemic art.
Poets: Virgil, Horace, Tibullus, Ovid. Geographer and historian Strabo.
Architect Vitruvius... Ten books on architecture. Vitruvius summed up the vast experience of Hellenistic and Roman architecture.
In the 1st book, he talks about the main requirements for choosing a place for the founding of the city :
Favorable climatic and topographic conditions;
Drinking water availability;
Water and land road systems for trade;
Fertile land.
According to Vitruvius, in the field of aesthetics, architects must adhere to ordination (order system), reasonable disposition (planning), respect for harmony, symmetry (proportionality), decorum (conformity) and distribution (resource allocation).
27 BC Rome developed freely between the hills where forums were built, on the Champ de Mars, where spectacular structures, porticoes and temples arose. On the hills, among gardens and picturesque nature, there were patrician villas.
Construction in the city was carried out with private funds, even the paving of roads. Particularly famous for his engineering activities Agrippa who repaired the ancient aqueducts - Aqua Apia, Anio Vetus, Aqua Anzia, Aqua Tepula - and built new ones - Aqua Julia and Aqua Virgo. Aqua Virgo supplied water to Agrippa's new baths on the Champ de Mars. A total of 700 pools, 500 fountains, 130 reservoirs were built in Rome. Around the Terme, Agrippa set up gardens with porticoes, sculptures, large pools and canals that served as drainages for the marshland of the Champ de Mars. This area has become a place of entertainment and festivities for the townspeople.
The construction of the main hills of Rome: the Capitoline and the Palatine, is associated with the name of Emperor Augustus. The hills of Jupiter and Apollo were built on Capitol Hill; on the Palatine Hill - a palace, a garden, a large circus. The Romanum Forum was renovated and completed. The Basilica of Julius was completed, the memorial temple of Julius Caesar, the temple of Castor and Pollux was built, the temple of Saturn was renovated, the temple of Concord was built. The paving of the forum is continued.
As part of the forum, the material remains of the royal and republican periods of the city's development have been preserved: the atrium and temple of the Vestals, the Royal Palaces, the Emilia Basilica, the Temple of Saturn, the rostrum for orators, and others.
Forum Romanum is a wonderful architectural ensemble, reflecting the combination of Greek and Roman urban planning art. The absence of a rigid rectangular shape and symmetry, the presence of various-sized structures, picturesqueness, openness and inclusion of the surrounding landscape.
New Forum of August built perpendicular to the Forum of Caesar. A space of 50 x 100 m, surrounded by a colonnade and exedra. At the end of the square is the temple of Mars Ultor (i.e. the avenger). The forum was surrounded by high walls of 30 meters, which isolated it from the city. Actually a semi-urban and semi-interior space was created, characteristic of imperial Rome. Had lovely marble paving. Decorative decoration: expensive stone, bronze. It was a semi-urban semi-interior space, where not all residents of the city were allowed.
During the Flavian dynasty (after 68), an extensive Peace Forum was built and
Colosseum (75 - 80 years). The dimensions of the oval base are 188 x 144 m. - 50 thousand spectators, the height is 48.5 m (higher than the hills, which did not exceed 36 m). The huge bowl of the Colosseum took a centering position in the city and turned into its kind of static core... The link between the Colosseum and the Romanum forum was arch of titus(architect Rabirii). It was built at a turning point in the relief and fixed the direction of the sacred street.(Via Sacra). On the opposite side of the forum, at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, next to the Temple of Concord, a small Temple of Vespasian was built.
Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill (architect Rabiriy) - a complex of premises grouped around the peristyle. Among them, the throne room, 29 x 35 m, stood out.
Associated with the name of Rabiria Walkthrough forum with the temple of Minerva - surrounded by a high wall, had a paving (like the forum of Augustus). The buildings of the Flavians are of a larger scale than the buildings of the beginning of the century, and more in line with the status of Rome as the capital of the empire.
2nd century AD... Rome has reached the pinnacle of its development - it has become the largest world center.
Population of Rome - 1 million people. The motley social composition of the population:
· Upper layer:
senators (large landowners),
horsemen (officials, warlords, landowners)
· A significant part of the Roman population was - plebeians: merchants, artisans, urban poor
· slaves- artisans, employee slaves,
· big number freedmen lived in the city,
· foreigners - peregrine, i.e. free persons who did not have either Roman or Latin citizenship.
In order to fight and prevent possible urban uprisings (since the bulk of the population belonged to the poor estates) - the conduct of the internal policy of the rulers - in handouts to the people of "bread and circuses". There were special food distribution points in the city.
The second means of distracting the masses from the uprisings is numerous entertainment and spectacles → Construction of stadiums, thermal baths, amphitheaters, circuses.
The increase in the population of Rome also affected the nature of residential architecture.
The main population huddled in high-rise buildings - insulah.
in the 1st century. in Rome 1,790 mansions
46,602 insulas.
The living rooms in the insul were grouped according to the corridor system. The residential streets were narrow and dark; with a width of 5 m, the height of the houses was 20 m.
The movement is pedestrian, rich townspeople were carried on a covered stretcher.
One of the most popular tourist routes for a great many travelers is a visit to the Eternal City - majestic, with a long history and a huge cultural heritage. The architecture of Ancient Rome amazes with its monumentality, surprises with its age and simply delights. Thanks to the work of hundreds of thousands of people of various professions, today for us ancient Rome is not only illustrations in a history textbook, but a whole unknown world.
Aqueducts
Another important component of the architecture of Ancient Rome and a vital element, without which the development of the city would have been impossible, is the water supply system. The impressive in size water conduits, which are based on the same arch, are still functioning.
The Eliev Bridge, better known as the "Sant'Angelo Bridge", located opposite the castle of the same name, can also be attributed to such architectural monuments of Ancient Rome. This ferry across the Tiber, first built during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, was completely overhauled only in the Renaissance.
Ponte Mulvio is another ancient bridge in Rome that has survived to this day. In ancient times, it was located outside the city. Flaminia, Cassia and Clodia streets led to it - the main highways,
Triumphal arches
Many rulers of Rome, who fought for the expansion and power of the Empire, did not hesitate to erect monumental triumphal arches in honor of their own merits. In ancient Rome, such structures glorified the emperor as a commander and defender of the homeland, perpetuated the memory of his grandiose victories and conquests, served as symbols of military power and political domination.
Triumphal arches, demonstrating the technological progress and artistic tastes of the Romans, were installed throughout the Empire: from Germany and Spain to North Africa and Asia Minor. In Rome itself, you can see several monuments of glory that have survived to this day, which are still in excellent condition today:
- Triumphal Arch of Titus;
- The Arc de Triomphe of Septimius Severus;
- Triumphal Arch of Constantine.
In addition, the pedestals left over from the triumphal arches of the emperors Augustus and Trajan, located on the territory of the Roman Forum, have survived in Rome.
Thermal complexes
Public baths played an equally important role in the daily life of the Romans. Ancient Ancient Rome is simply impossible to imagine without magnificent thermal complexes that were erected throughout the Empire, even in the smallest cities. In the 1st century. BC. there were about 170 public baths in Rome! The emperors built enormous thermal complexes, for which, in most cases, no fee was charged. In addition, representatives of influential families had bath complexes directly on the territory of their own possessions.
Baths have always been not only an integral part of any urban infrastructure performing sanitary and hygienic functions, but also a whole social institution. They gathered here to discuss the latest city news, relax and have fun.
Of course, the architecture of Ancient Rome is not limited to the above examples of building structures. Nevertheless, they allow us to imagine at what a high level the engineering thought of the sculptors of the ancient era was and how fundamental the erected structures were, which, at times, still cause genuine delight and surprise.
One of the most ancient civilizations in the world - the Holy Roman Empire - gave mankind the greatest culture, which included not only the richest literary heritage, but also the stone chronicle. For a long time there is no people who inhabited this state, but thanks to the preserved architectural monuments, it is possible to recreate the way of life of the pagan Romans. April 21, the day the city was founded on seven hills, I propose to look at 10 sights of Ancient Rome.
Roman forum
The area, located in the valley between the Palatine and Velia on the south side, the Capitol on the west, Esquiline and the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal, was a wetland in the pre-Roman period. Until the middle of the VIII century BC. NS. this area was used for burials, and settlements were located on the nearby hills. The place was drained during the reign of King Tarquikius the Ancient, who stopped it at the center of the political, religious and cultural life of the townspeople. It was here that the famous truce between the Romans and the Sabines took place, elections to the Senate were held, judges sat and divine services were held.
From west to east, through the entire Roman Forum, runs the sacred road of the empire - Via Appia, or the Appian Way, along which there are many monuments from both ancient and medieval times. The Roman Forum houses the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Vesta.
The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC, symbolizing the victory over the Etruscan kings of the Tarquinean clan. Several times he died during fires, but was revived. The inscription on the frieze confirms that "The Senate and the people of Rome have been rebuilt, which was destroyed by fire." It was a majestic building, which was decorated with a statue of Saturn, it included the premises of the state treasury, an aerarium, where documents on state revenues and debts were kept. However, only a few columns of the Ionic order have survived to this day.
The construction of the Temple of Vespasian began by decision of the Senate in 79 AD. NS. after the death of the emperor. This holy building was dedicated to Flavias: Vespasian and his son Titus. It was 33 meters long and 22 meters wide. Three 15-meter columns of the Corinthian order have survived to this day.
The Temple of Vesta is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth and in ancient times was connected with the House of the Vestals. The Sacred Fire was constantly maintained in the interior. Initially, it was guarded by the king's daughters, then they were replaced by the Vestal priestesses, who also conducted services in honor of Vesta. In this temple there was a cache with the symbols of the empire. The building was rounded in shape, the territory of which was bordered by 20 Corinthian columns. Despite the fact that the roof had an outlet for smoke, fires often broke out in the temple. It was rescued several times, reconstructed, but in 394 the emperor Theodosius ordered to close it. Gradually, the building was dilapidated and fell into decay.
Trajan's Column
Monument of ancient Roman architecture, erected in 113 AD. architect Apollodorus of Damascus in honor of the victories of Emperor Trajan over the Dacians. A marble column, hollow inside, rises 38 m above the ground. In the "body" of the structure there is a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to an observation deck on the capital.
The column's trunk spirals 23 times around a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. Initially, the monument was crowned with an eagle, later - a statue of Trajan. And in the Middle Ages, the column began to be decorated with a statue of the Apostle Peter. At the base of the column there is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed. The relief tells about Trajan's two wars with the Dacians, and the period 101-102. AD separated from the battles of 105–106 by the winged figure of Victoria writing the name of the winner on a shield surrounded by trophies. It also depicts the movement of the Romans, the construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles, details of weapons and armor of both troops are drawn in great detail. In total, there are about 2,500 human figures on the 40-ton column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to the Victory, there are other allegorical figures in the relief: the Danube as a majestic old man, Night as a woman with a veiled face, etc.
Pantheon
The Temple of All Gods was built in 126 AD. NS. under the Emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, erected two centuries earlier by Mark Vipsanius Agrippa. The Latin inscription on the pediment reads: “M. AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT "-" Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, elected consul for the third time, erected this. " Located in Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is distinguished by the classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, the majesty of the artistic image. The building, devoid of external decorations of a cylindrical shape, is crowned with a dome covered with discreet carvings. The height from the floor to the opening in the vault exactly matches the diameter of the base of the dome, presenting an amazing proportion to the eye. The weight of the dome is distributed over eight sections that make up the monolith of the wall, between which there are niches that give the massive building an airy feeling. Thanks to the illusion of open space, it seems that the walls are not so thick, and the dome is much lighter than in reality. The circular opening in the vault of the temple lets in light, illuminating the rich interior decoration. Everything has come down to this day almost unchanged.
Coliseum
One of the most significant buildings in Ancient Rome. The huge amphitheater took eight years to build. It was an oval building with 80 large arches along the perimeter of the arena, with smaller ones on them. The arena is surrounded by a wall in 3 tiers, and the total number of large and small arches was 240. Each tier was decorated with columns made in different styles. The first is Doric, the second is Ionic, and the third is Corinthian. In addition, sculptures made by the best Roman masters were installed on the first two tiers.
The building of the amphitheater included galleries intended for the recreation of spectators, and loud traders sold various goods there. Outside, the Colosseum was decorated with marble, and beautiful statues were located around its perimeter. 64 entrances led into the room, which were located on different sides of the amphitheater.
Below were the privileged places for the noble nobles of Rome and the throne of the emperor. The floor of the arena, where not only gladiatorial battles took place, but also real sea battles, was made of wood.
Today, the Colosseum has lost two-thirds of its original mass, but even today it is a magnificent structure, being a symbol of Rome. No wonder the saying goes: "While the Colosseum stands, Rome will also stand, disappear the Colosseum - Rome and the whole world will disappear along with it."
Arch of Titus
The single-span marble arch, located on the Via Sacra, was built after the death of Emperor Titus to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem in 81 AD. Its height is 15.4 m, width - 13.5 m, span depth - 4.75 m, span width - 5.33 m. procession with trophies, among which the main shrine of the Jewish temple is the menorah.
Baths of Caracalla
The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. under Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed Caracalla. The luxurious building was intended not only for the washing process, but also for a variety of leisure activities, including both sports and intellectual. There were four entrances to the "bath building"; through two central ones they entered the covered halls. On both sides of it were rooms for meetings, recitation, etc. Among the many different rooms on the right and left intended for washing rooms, two large open symmetrical courtyards surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, the floor of which was decorated with the famous mosaic with the figures of athletes, should be noted. The emperors not only tiled the walls with marble, covered the floors with mosaics and erected magnificent columns: they systematically collected works of art here. In the baths of Caracalla once stood the Farnese bull, statues of Flora and Hercules, the torso of Apollo Belvedere.
The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. Everyone could choose for himself what he liked: some, having washed, sat down to chat with friends, went to watch the wrestling and gymnastic exercises, could stretch themselves; others wandered through the park, admired the statues, sat in the library. People left with a supply of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally. Despite such a gift of fate, the terms were destined to collapse.
Temples of Portune and Hercules
These temples are located on the left bank of the Tiber on another ancient forum of the city - Bych. In early republican times, ships docked here and a brisk livestock trade was conducted, hence the name.
The Temple of Portuna was built in honor of the god of ports. The building has a rectangular shape, decorated with columns of the Ionic order. The temple has been well preserved since around 872 A.D. was converted into the Christian church of Santa Maria in Gradelis, in the 5th century it was consecrated into the church of Santa Maria Aegitsiana.
The Temple of Hercules has a monopter design - a round building without internal partitions. The construction dates back to the 2nd century BC. The temple has a diameter of 14.8 m and is decorated with twelve Corinthian columns 10.6 m high. The structure rests on a tuff foundation. Previously, the temple had an architrave and a roof, which have not survived to our times. In 1132 A.D. the temple became a place of Christian worship. The church was originally called Santo Stefano al Carose. In the 17th century, the newly consecrated temple began to be called Santa Maria del Sol.
Field of Mars
"Champ de Mars" - this was the name of the part of Rome, located on the left bank of the Tiber, originally intended for military and gymnastic exercises. In the center of the field was an altar in honor of the god of war. This part of the field remained vacant afterwards, while the rest of the field was built up.
Hadrian's mausoleum
The architectural monument was conceived as the tomb of the emperor and his family. The mausoleum was a square base (side length - 84 m), in which a cylinder (diameter - 64 m, height about 20 m) was installed, topped with a mound, the top of which was adorned with a sculptural composition: the emperor in the form of the sun god, ruling a quadriga. Subsequently, this gigantic structure was used for military and strategic purposes. Centuries have changed its original appearance. The building acquired the Angel's courtyard, medieval halls, including the Hall of Justice, the Pope's apartments, a prison, a library, a Treasure Hall and the Secret Archives. From the terrace of the castle, over which the figure of an Angel rises, a magnificent view of the city opens.
Catacombs
The Catacombs of Rome are a network of ancient structures used as burial places, mostly during the early Christian period. In total, there are more than 60 different catacombs in Rome (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. The labyrinths of underground passages, according to one version, arose on the site of ancient quarries, according to the other, they were formed in private land plots. In the Middle Ages, the custom of burying in the catacombs disappeared, and they remained as evidence of the culture of Ancient Rome.
This period includes the construction of a number of large engineering structures, including the large port in Ostia. In 102 AD, Trajan built a large stone bridge with concrete supports across the Danube to control Dhaka. Of course, it was not he who built, but his master builders, among whom Apollodorus of Damascus stood out. He was probably one of the most educated and talented engineers of the Roman Empire, since in addition to the bridge, he built a number of large and structurally complex structures, such as the Forum of Trajan, the circus and the baths in Rome, named after the emperor. He is credited with the construction of one of the most beautiful and outstanding structures of world architecture - the concrete Pantheon in Rome.
Construction continues even more intensively during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117-138). Adrian took part in the construction not only as an organizer, but also as an architect and civil engineer. He spent most of his life traveling around the empire. Adrian visited all the Roman provinces, was a great admirer of Greek culture, admired the skill of Egyptian artists.
In his declining years, he ordered to build a country villa with concrete walls in the city of Tibure near Rome and reproduce in miniature everything that so struck him during his travels. In 132, Hadrian began to build for himself a grandiose mausoleum and a bridge to it, thrown across the Tiber. The construction of these structures was completed in 139. The construction activity of Hadrian's closest successors was not so lively. Of the most significant structures, one can name a temple in honor of the wife of the emperor Antoninus Pius and a column named after Marcus Aurelius.
During the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211), there was a certain revival of construction activity. According to his contemporary Lempidarius, “... He restored the buildings of the former sovereigns and erected many of them himself, including the baths of his own name. I also ran water, which is called Alexandrova ...
He was the first to introduce the Alexander method of finishing with two types of marble. At Trajan's forum, he erected statues of great people, transferring them from everywhere ... The bridges built by Trajan, he restored in almost all places, and in some he rebuilt ... "In 203, to commemorate the victories over the Parthians and Arabs in Rome under construction on a strong concrete foundation, the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus is 23 meters high and 25 meters wide. The architecture of this period is notable for the richness of decoration, which gives the buildings a ceremonial look.
Under Emperor Caracalla (211-217), the most grandiose and beautiful baths in the history of the city were built in Rome, where concrete was used as the main building material. The entire complex of buildings covered 16 hectares and was completed in a little over four years.
If earlier large monetary expenses caused by wars, road construction, public works, hunger and plague epidemics were covered by war booty, tribute from conquered peoples or money from the sale of prisoners of war and confiscated lands, now, at the beginning of the 3rd century, such opportunities are sharply are shrinking.
Rome at that time, like many cities in its provinces, still retained its external splendor, but the decline, rooted in the very structure of the Roman Empire, was already clearly visible. Maritime trade was once again threatened by pirates, and overland roads became unsafe due to increased incidents of robbery. A period of extreme economic collapse has come; cities were depopulated, fields were deserted, since there were not enough workers, the deepening of typical forms of subsistence economy was observed.
In the second half of the 3rd century, after the onslaught of the barbarians on the Roman borders intensified, the intensive construction of fortresses and walls began throughout the vast empire. So, Aurelian from the first days of his reign began to strengthen Rome with powerful walls, the construction of which was completed in 282.
The measures and numerous decrees of Diocletian, and later of Constantine, aimed at normalizing the country's economic life, were crowned with success. The external danger to the Roman state was temporarily removed, order was consolidated, and peace was assured. One of the main methods of state policy was the "militarization" of the entire state, including the civilian population. Taking the large eastern monarchies as a model, the emperors created such a socio-economic system in which every citizen was considered to be in the service only of the state. No one had the right to leave the social category or craft organization in which he was. No one could evade the activity to which he was destined from the day of his birth. The formerly free colleges, which united people by profession, have now turned into compulsory corporations. Most artisans received cash, and more often in kind benefits from the state, but for this they had to come to terms with the fact that their freedom was now sharply limited.
In this situation, capital construction is growing and expanding. The amphitheater in Verona, built in 290, dates back to the reign of Diocletian - a building resembling the type and size of the Colosseum in Rome. In 305, the huge concrete baths of Diocletian were built. They could simultaneously accommodate 3200 people and were the largest structure of this type created in the entire history of Roman construction.
Under Constantine, who continued the traditions of Diocletian in the field of government, on May 11, 330, the solemn consecration of the new capital of the Roman Empire, which was named Constantinople, took place. It quickly began to be built up, decorated with magnificent buildings and works of art transported from Rome and Greece.
By the IV century. The Roman Empire is entering the last and final stage of its development. A system of so-called naturally closed serf relations is gradually taking shape. Trade is declining in the country, almost all types of government payments are being naturalized. The appearance of cities is changing. They now take the form of fortresses bounded by powerful walls and towers. The estates turn into independent political and economic units, and their owner becomes the sovereign, with an army of slaves and colonists. The empire of Rome was disintegrating before our eyes. At the end of the IV century. a new socio-political crisis arises. In parallel, the pressure of the barbarians on the borders of the state is increasing. Huge masses of Huns, Alans and Goths moved from the Caspian steppes to the West. On August 24, 410, the eternal city fell.
Thus, as a result of the aggressive policy of Ancient Rome, its enrichment through wars, the construction of large engineering structures, luxurious mansions, palaces, temples, residential and public buildings develops. In turn, this required a new strong, durable and relatively cheap material, which was concrete. However, for the implementation of large construction projects from concrete, gold and slaves were not enough. A well-established organization of labor, engineering knowledge and construction equipment was required.
The architecture of the Roman Empire in the ruins of the Roman Forum.
The conquest of Greece brought Rome a new perspective on culture and art. However, Roman architecture not only copied Greek, but also made its own contribution to the development of architecture. Ancient Roman architecture in its development also absorbed the culture of building the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, Ancient Germany, Gaul and others, conquered by the empire. Rome adopted a lot from the art of the Etruscans, bearers of a highly developed culture, thanks to the influence of which some constructive approaches to construction and engineering structures appeared. The beginning of the development of Roman architecture dates back to the 6-1 century. BC. At the beginning of this period, Rome was a small city, and its architecture was influenced by the culture of the Etruscans - the Italic tribes. They borrowed arches and vaults with domes. In those days, powerful defensive structures were created, for example, the Servius wall (4th century BC). Up to 3 c. BC. In Roman architecture, there were mainly wooden structures with terracotta ornaments. Up to 2 c. BC. in Rome, local marble had not yet been mined, and temples were built from volcanic tuff. Soft tuff arched vaults replaced the strong beams used in Greek buildings and served as load-bearing structural elements. The walls were decorated with plaster reliefs. The development of technologies for obtaining fired bricks belongs to this period, a frame was erected from it, and the facing was made of tuff. On Capitol Hill in 509 BC a temple was erected with three cells of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The ridge of the pediment was decorated with a terracotta quadriga by the sculptor Vulka. Later, the temple was rebuilt several times using columns from Greek temples.
Temple of Jupiter Capitoline in Rome and elements of the order in temples in different cities of the era of Ancient Rome.
In the 2nd - 1st centuries. BC. in Roman architecture, they began to use a new plastic material - concrete. Vaulted structures are used in construction. At this time, they began to erect buildings for courts, trade, amphitheaters, circuses, baths, libraries, markets. The creation of the first triumphal arches, warehouses (the portico of Emiliev - 2nd century BC) dates back to that period. Chanceries and archives appeared (Tabularia. 80s of the 1st century BC). Such rapid construction and the emergence of buildings for various purposes is caused by the expanding expansion, the seizure of territories, the increase in the size of the state and the need for strict regulation of the controlled territories.
Tabularia in Rome.
By the end of the 1st century. AD formed the Roman Empire with sole power. The reign of Emperor Augustus gave birth to "August classicism" in the architecture of the Roman Empire, which later became the basis for European architecture. At this time, they began to develop "Lunsky", then Carrara marble. Roman architecture of that period was guided by the works of Phidias in Ancient Greece. Instead of houses made of raw wood and wood, the first multi-storey houses appeared, houses, mansions of aristocrats, which were built of baked bricks and concrete and were faced The city was adorned with the villas of Campagna, palaces decorated with porticoes, columns, pediments, rich sculptural decoration. Fountains with stucco decoration combined with green gardens. The Roman Forum appeared, around which public buildings and temples are erected. The Roman Forum still has Corinthian columns of the temple. Castor and Poluxa 12.5 m high.
Columns of the Temple of Castor and Polux in Rome.
The plundered wealth from the conquered countries caused the rise of Roman architecture, which was intended to highlight the greatness of the empire. The structures emphasized their scale, monumentality and power. The buildings were richly decorated. In the antique style, not only temples and palaces were erected, but also baths, bridges, theaters, aqueducts. As a basis, Greek orders were used, of which the Corinthian order was given priority, as well as a new composite one, created as a mixture of ancient Greek ones. However, in the architecture of the Roman Empire, the elements of the order were used mainly as decorative, in contrast to Ancient Greece, where all parts of the order system carried a certain load and were part of the structure. In the 1st century. BC. not only in Rome, but also in provincial cities, wonderful architectural complexes appeared, as, for example, in Pompeii. Emperor Nero gave Roman architecture a new look, destroying several quarters of the city, on the site of which the "Golden House" was built.
Ruins of the Golden House of Nero in Rome.
During the reign of the Flavians and Trajan (late 1st-early 2nd centuries AD), large architectural complexes were built. In conquered Athens, Hadrian erected the temple of Olympian Zeus in 135 AD. (reconstructed in 307). Under Hadrian (125), the Pantheon began to be erected - a striking structure of the architecture of the Roman Empire, which has survived to this day. The pantheon was created from volumes of a strict geometric shape: a cylindrical rotunda, a hemispherical dome, a portico with two rows of columns in the form of a parallelepiped. A hole has been made on the dome through which the interior of the temple is illuminated. This work clearly displays the proportions: the diameter of the rotunda is equal to the height of the structure. The height of the dome is equal to half of the conditional sphere, which could be inscribed into the temple structure. In the decoration of the Pantheon: marble slabs of the lower tier and plaster on the upper tiers. The roof was covered with bronze tiles. The Pantheon has become a model for many structures of European architecture from different historical eras.
Top view of the Roman Pantheon.
At the end of the 3rd century. AD one of the most important structures of the architecture of the Roman Empire was the defensive wall of Aurelian. Emperor Diocletian (3-4 centuries AD) made Salona his residence and practically did not live in Rome. A well-fortified palace complex with access to the sea was built in the Salon. At this time, the architecture of the Roman Empire was distinguished by austerity, clarity and less decoration. The late period (up to the end of the 2nd century) of the development of Roman architecture began during the reign of Hadrian and during the reign of Antoninus Pius. These were the years of fierce wars, conspiracies, political assassinations, uprisings, as well as the invasion of the plague. In those days, triumphal arches were not erected, but many residential buildings and villas were being built. The Roman architecture of the late Antonines was distinguished by a large amount of decoration. This period includes the Temple of Hadrian, the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina at the Roman Forum, the columns of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, richly decorated with bas-reliefs.
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina at the Roman Forum (141 BC).
With the coming to power of Emperor Constantine and after 313, with the official recognition of the Christian religion as the main one on the territory of the Roman Empire, ancient orders were used for the construction of temples. The capital was moved to what was once Greek Byzantium, which was named Constantinople. Rome is losing its central importance, and ancient art, moving away from its center, gradually acquires a formal character, gradually developing into medieval styles.
Temple of St. Sophia in Constantinople. Built under Emperor Constantine. 324-337
Roman architecture of the 3rd century AD more and more exposed to the influence of Christianity, however, the order system was still used in the construction of temples and public buildings: large entrance stairs, multi-column porticoes, podiums, high wall decor. In the era of the dominate (284-305 AD), the appearance of Roman architecture changed: the amount of decoration decreased, the clarity of volumes and proportions decreased. At this time, techniques appeared that were then used in Byzantine architecture: a combination of stone and brick, mosaics in decoration. For example, the Temple of Jupiter was built of white stone, brick, colored marble was used for facing, the surfaces were covered with plaster, mosaics, and gypsum stucco. At the same time, the art of stone carving was fading away: the stucco molding became coarser and less detailed. The developing Byzantine art used the traditions of architecture of the Roman Empire and Ancient Greece, combining them with oriental motives. During the 5th century. on the basis of these tendencies of Roman architecture, European architecture began to form, which brought great works to world architecture. Until now, many of the elements of Roman architecture are used in the construction of buildings in historical styles. And with the advent of artificial materials that imitate natural ones, such as, for example, polyurethane, such construction has become more democratic, reducing the cost and the need for large labor costs.
The facade of the apartment building is reminiscent of ancient Roman buildings.
