Spain is a large state of the southwest part of Europe, which occupies most of the Pyrenean Peninsula, Canary, Pitius, Balearic Islands. Area of \u200b\u200bterritory - 504 750 sq.m., land - 499,400 sq.m.
Geographic characteristics
The Kingdom of Spain is located in the southern part of Europe, occupying about five sixth territories of the Pyrenean Peninsula. The position is isolated, which is due to the presence of the Pyrenees Mountains. In addition to Portugal from the west.
The territory borders with such countries as France, Andorra and Gibraltar in the North-West and South. Approximately 30% of the country is an array of plane realer with ridges of central cordillera in the central part. The rest of the territory is occupied by Pyrenees, which make the center of Spain in difficult to reach the mainland.
Nature
The mountains
The main part of the country is occupied by the Plateau of the Plate with Central Cordillera. In the north and east are the Iberian, Pyrenean, Cantabrian, Catalan Mountains, the South side - Sierra Moraine and Andalus Mountains. Most of the territory are busy with plains, pastures, the coast is distinguished by beautiful beaches and coves ...
Rivers and lakes
Numerous rivers flow on the territory and lakes with mainly rain origins. This affects the level of water - in the summer, with a low humidity of the river and the lake, it is strongly melted, in winter the water level increases greatly.
In the country, such rivers flow: Tahoe with a length of 910 km, Douro is 780 km, Guadian, the length of which is 820 km, Guadalquivir with a length of 560 km. The country's lakes are located mainly in mountainous areas, seasonal fluctuations they are not so strong as water plains ...
Sea and Ocean Washing Spain
The special geographical position of Spain makes it attractive for tourists. This is due to the presence of more than 4 thousand km of the coastline with luxurious beaches, picturesque rocks, quiet, cozy bays. Country in the south and east washed warm water Mediterranean Sea, in the north - the waters of the Biscay Bay, and in the southwest - the waters of the Atlantic Ocean ...
Plants and animals of Spain
The vegetable world of Spain is very rich, it has about 8 thousand plants, many of which are endemic. But extensive forests have been preserved only in the north of the country, which is associated with active economic activities. The diversity of the plant world is due to the climate, mainly this large forest (casualties, chestnuts, elms, beech, oaks), there are evergreen coniferous and oak forests in the mountains, the extensive alpine meadows are located above.
For Spain, leaf falling forests are characterized, including the puffy and rock oaks, ash, alchurch. In the mountains are common beech and fir. Mediterranean areas are rich in laurels and stone oak. Due to human intervention, many forests have already disappeared or turned into extensive pastures, on the edges of which are rare forest belts and primary shrubs. Such a border consists of a slaughterhouse, reta, hawthorn, terns, raised wild roses.
The richests vegetable world They are the North Atlantic slopes of the country, the plain parts of the Ebro River. "Dry" part of the country is distinguished by the Mediterranean types of vegetation - juniper thickets, Mirut, Lanenik.
Animal world Also distinguished by a great variety, in the northern regions they live roams, boars, deer, in the mountains have a Pyrenean goat, deer. Also in the mountains you can meet a brown bear, foxes, wolves, lyry. The territory of the country is considered the richest in Europe by the manifold of birds. In summer, about 25 species of prey birds live on site, late in autumn And the early spring on the territory you can observe rare species of birds, flamingo colony, geese.
In Spain, the premature - snakes, lizards, chameleons are found in abundance. In the south-east and semi-desert you can meet scorpions and tarantulas. In the inner waters surrounding the seas there are salmon, lunguhsts, as well as tuna, langusts, crayfish ...
Climate Spain
Climate brightly pronounced Mediterranean subtropical, winter soft and rainy, summer roast and arid. But from the north-west southeast, the climate changes dramatically, due to the proximity of Africa. The average annual temperature ranges in the range of + 14 / + 19 °, in the winter - to + 4 / + 5 °, in summer the average temperature is + 29 °. The level of precipitation is poured for individual regions of the country - in the mountains it reaches 1000 mm per year in winter, on the plain territories - 300-500 mm per year ...
Resources
Spain is rich in natural resourceswhat is due to her geographical position. In the mountains of Sierra Moraine there are the largest deposits of zinc, lead ores, manganese, copper cchedan. The iron ore is concentrated in the country of Basques, Leone, Asturias, Almeria, Terwell, Granada, the estimated volume of such ores is about 2.5 million tons. Galicia and the northern part of the country are rich in tungsten and tin, the province of Salamanca and Cordoba are rich in uranium ores.
In the reserves of mercury, Spain is in the first place, the big guar of cynosaries are in the valley of the river. Baldeasaga, Ciudad Real Province. Pyrites are concentrated in the southern regions of the Sierra Moraine Mountains. Stone coal reserves, lingitis, anthracite are concentrated in the northern regions, Galicia, Aragon, Asturias. But coking coal is extremely small, the overall quality is not high ...
Traveling in Latin America - Spain
The name of the country comes from the Phoenician "and-punish" - "coast of rabbits" or "the shore of Damanov".
The capital of Spain is Madrid.
Spain Area - 504 782 km?.
Population of Spain - 46,162 thousand people.
Location of Spain. Spain - South European country. It ranks five Sixth Pyrenean Peninsula, Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenean Mountains are difficult to reach and isolate Spain from other European countries except Portugal located on the western part of the peninsula. Spain is washed by the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. On land, it borders with Portugal in the West, with France (on the ridge of the Pyrenees Mountains) and the tiny state of Andorra in the northeast, with Gibraltar in the south.
Administrative division of Spain. Consists of 17 autonomous regions: Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Balearic Islands, Basque Country, Valencia, Galicia, Canary Islands, Cantabria, Catalonia, Castile Lamecha, Castilla and Leon, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, Rio, Extremadura, which unite 50 provinces, as well as 2 cities (Ceuta and Melilla), located on the Northern Coast of Africa and are independent administrative units.
The form of the board of Spain is a constitutional monarchy.
The head of state Spain is the king.
Supreme Legislative Body of Spain - General Cortes (Parliament), consisting of two chambers, are elected for 4 years.
The highest executive body of Spain is the government.
The major cities of Spain - Barcelona, \u200b\u200bValencia, Seville, Saragoza, Bilbao, Malaga.
Official language Spain - Spanish, legalized the use of Catalan, Galician, Basque, Aran and some other languages \u200b\u200bof national minorities.
Religion of Spain. 99% - Catholics.
Ethnic composition of Spain. 72.8% - Spaniards, 16.4% - Catalans, 8.2% - Galicians, 2.3% - Basic.
Spain's currency - euro \u003d 100 cents.
Climate of Spain. In most of Spain, the climate is subtropical Mediterranean - with a hot dry summer and soft rainy winter. However, it varies significantly from the North-West to the southeast of the country and, depending on the height above sea level. In addition to the large number of mountain ranges and a flatbed that make up 90% of the total area of \u200b\u200bthe territory, the neighborhood with Africa has a great influence on the climate. The average annual temperature across the country fluctuates in the area + 20 ° C. In Southern Spain, the average daily temperature + 26 ° C is almost 200 days a year. The most precipitation falls in the north and northwest of the country, and the central and southeastern areas are more dry. That is why Spain is conventionally divided into "dry" (the annual amount of precipitation up to 500 mm) and "wet" (up to 900 mm per year). Spain is the most high-mountainous country in Europe after Switzerland. The most powerful mountain system - Pyrenees, the main vertex of which is the peak anetho (3404 m).
Flora Spain. Apart from the flora of the Canary Islands, about 8,000 plant species grows in Spain, many of which are found only in this area. From once extensive forests remained only a small part in the north of the country. In the "wet" Spain, beech, elm, oak, chestnut, ash, linden, poplar. Above in the mountains of the forests go to the filler meadows. The richest vegetation on the North Atlantic slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains and the Galician array - that is why these areas are called "green" Spain. On the plain the Ebro River at the foot of the mountains grow evergreen shrubs and herbs, there are also semi-desert vegetation with a predominance of wormwood and salt marsh. In the "dry" Spain, Mediterranean vegetation prevails, evergreen shrubs and semi-stabilics - McWis, Gariga and Tomillary. In the extreme south, the hazymeral palm trees are common - the only wild palm tree in Europe.
Fauna of Spain. The animal world of Spain is also very rich and diverse. In the north of the Middle Eastern Fauna - a lot of deer, roe deer, boars. Mountain areas have noble deer and a Pyrenean mountain goat. A sporting hunt for deer is allowed. Sometimes in the Cantabrian Mountains and the mountains of Leon you can see a brown bear. From predators there is a slight amount of wolves, foxes, and in the mouth of Guadalquivir - Spanish lynx. Near Gibraltar dwells Macak - the only representative of this type of monkeys in Europe. Spain rightfully occupies a leading place in Europe by the number of bird species found here. Among them are hawks, eagles, griffins, falcons. There are a lot of colonies of waterfowl - geese, ducks, herds, flamingos, white storks.
Spain also contains a large number of species of reptiles - lizards, snakes, chameleons, and in semi-deserts in the south of the country - Tarantulas and Scorpions.
In the mouths of the rivers and in the coastal waters of the Atlantic, many fish -Is are mainly sardines, in fewer salaka, cod, anchovies and various types of mollusks. In the Mediterranean Sea dwells the tuna, salmon, anchov, crayfish and lobs.
Rivers and lakes of Spain. The largest rivers of Spain - Tahoe, Douro, Ebro, Segura, Guadalquivir, Guadiana. Lakes are small and are located mainly in the mountains.
Tags: Free Travel, Traveling in Latin America, Spain
General information about Spain
Official name - Kingdom of Spain (El Reino de Espana, The Kingdom of Spain). Located in the south-west of Europe (ranks 4/5 of the Pyrenean Peninsula, as well as the islands of Balearic in the Mediterranean and Canary in the Atlantic Ocean). total area - 506 thousand km2, population - 40.2 million people. (2002). State language - Spanish (Castilian adverb). Capital - Madrid (3 million people, 2002). State party - the day of the Spanish Nation October 12. The monetary unit is the euro (from 2002, prior to this).
Ownership (located under direct control of Spain): Cities of Ceuta and Melilla, located on the North Coast of Africa with adjacent to them in small islands and capes: Chafarinas, Alsemas, Veles de la Gomer.
Member of International Organizations: UN (from 1955), NATO (1981), EU (1986), as well as OECD, OSCE, IMF, WTO, UNESCO, etc.
Geography of Spain
It is located between 43 ° and 36 ° north latitude and between 3 ° East and 9 ° West longitude. Washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean - in the north-west and southwest, the Mediterranean Sea - in the south and east.
General extension marine borders 4964 km, land - 1918 km. Spain's shores are weakly dissected, but in the north and northwest in the Biscay bay there are a number of comfortable bays, which are natural harbors.
Spain borders in the north with France (the length of the French-Spanish border of 623 km) and at a short plot with Andorra (62.3 km), in the West - with Portugal (1214 km), in the south-west - with Gibraltar (1.2 km ), in the south - with Morocco (Ceuta, 6.3 km and Melilla, 9.6 km).
The landscape of Spain is a kind of "continent of miniature", full of contrasts and deep natural differences. The center of the country is at a distance of 300 km from the sea. In the relief, the dominant role is played by the systems of mountain ranges and high-altitude plane, occupying 60% of the internal territory of the country. In the northeast, Spain is connected to Europe with a variety of Pyrenean mountains stretching at 440 km and reaching 3404 m heights (peak anetho). The main part of Spain fills the largest plateau in Europe, called the Central or Castilian Plate (660 m above the sea level). Almost on all sides, it is bounded by mountain ranges: Cantabrian mountains with the main peak of Peña de Seredo (height 2500 m), Galician array, Iberian and Toledo Mountains. Weather from the northeast to the southwest crosses mountain Ridge Central Cordillera, the highest point of which is Plaza Almorza (2678 m). Along the South and Southeastern Mediterranean coast of Spain, the Andalusian, or Betsky, Mountains, Mountains, which are located on a large number of ridges and arrays, is the highest of which (more than 3000 m heights) is Sierra Nevada. Here is also the highest point of the pencent resistant Spain - Peak Mulasen, 3481 m. Along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea passes the mountain chain of the Catalan Mountains with a pinnacle of the Monsigni (1698 m). In the East, the Mediterranean Spain is opening under their cover, where sandy coastal valleys alternate and cliffs. The Canary Islands have volcanic origin. On the island of Tenerife, the largest of the Canary Islands is the highest point of Spain - Tadeid Peak (3717 m).
The lowlands in Spain occupy a relatively small area. From the east to the Catalan Mountains, an extensive Aragonian Plain is adjacent, and in the south-west - Andalusian lowland, forming the coast of the Cadiz bay. Two other plains are adjacent to the Mediterranean, the narrow strip: Valencia and Morning.
The main rivers of Spain - Douro, Tahoe (in the lower flow belonging to Portugal), Guadiana (flows along the Spanish-Portuguese border), Guadalquivir and Ebro - do not differ in great full-breeding, significantly depend on rain food. The only shipping river at the high distance - Guadalquivir, flows into the Cadiz Bay.
Soil cover differs significantly in wet and dry Spain. Wet forests are common in the north, in the south - red soils, at a significant part of the web - low-grade, sandy and stony soils. The most fertile alluvial soils of seaside lowlands and river valleys give good crops.
Spanish vegetation world is extremely diverse. Forests and shrubs cover 52% of the country's territory, but only 5% of them are real thick and high-seat arrays (evergreen oaks, including cork, coniferous and juniper forests), found mainly to the north and west of the plateau. In wet forests, a wide forest with a chestnut, beech and ash is growing along the valleys of rivers. Ornate shrubs, herbal meadow (including medicinal) and rocky flora, close to alpine, but with a considerable number of local forms. The knee is a predominantly agricultural area, where the production of traditional cereals (wheat, barley) is concentrated, and grapes, olives, almonds, citrus fruit. The natural landscape of the south and southeast of the country is predominantly steppe and deserted type with the predominance of herbs, wormwood, thickets of dwarf palm trees, other species of southern flora. The exception is only the Andalusian lowland, for which extensive fields of crops are characteristic. On the territory of Spain is approx. 215 (8.4% of the national territory) of natural reserves. Among them - National parks Donyana and Karachonai - recognized UNESCO the treasure of mankind.
The animal world is widely represented by a variety of Middle Eastern and North African fauna. Lynx, Fox, Caban, Wild Goat, Wolf, Pretty Numerous Rodents, Insectivores, Reptiles (Turtles, Lizards, Snakes), Magot Monkey (in the Gibraltar District). The diversified and ornithuna of Spain, for which the presence of endemic forms (blue forty, sultan chicken, flamingo) is characterized. From other species of birds: eagles, hawks, herons, owls, numerous detachment of waterfowl. Coastal waters and local freshwater pools of Spain are rich in fish, various types of water invertebrate animals, molluscs.
Spanish is rich in minerals. Public-European importance has iron ore deposits, pyrite, copper, lead, tin, zinc, tungsten, uranium, titanium, molybdenum, gold and silver. Great mercury deposits (one of the first places in the world). Energy resources are represented by stone and brown coal. Deployed coal reserves of 0.7 billion tons. Coals of low quality, among them there are few coking. Provocated oil reserves of 1 million tons, gas - 2 billion m3. In general, Spain's fuel and energy resources are insufficient, and it has to import oil (97% of internal consumption) and coke (30%). Freshwater resources per capita - 2398 m3.
The climate of Spain is a subtropical Mediterranean type - is divided into three main zones. Northern wet Iberia is subject to the strong influence of the Atlantic Ocean. Here is moderately warm summer and soft, but very wet winter. In the central Iberia, the climate is reskokontinental with dry, dusty summer and rather cool in winter. In the south and south-east, the climate is close to African: summer is dry, long and very hot, winter is warm with a significant amount of precipitation. The main climatic feature of the country is the lack of moisture and the abundance of sunlight. By the number of sunny days a year, Spain occupies one of the first places in Europe.
Population of Spain
In the 1990s. The average annual growth rates of the population were 0.2%. To start. 1980s. Traditionally, the negative balance of migration acquired a positive balance. Currently, the country is experiencing immigration pressure, especially from North Africa and Latin America. Net immigration indicator 0.87.
Population density 79 people. 1 km2 (one of the lowest in Europe), incl. In the autonomous community of Madrid - 605 people / km2, in the Basque Country - 295 people / km2, in the Valencian community - 100 people / km2. The cities live OK. 70% of the Spaniards.
Birth rate - 9.26, mortality - 9.13 ‰ (2001), child mortality 4.92 people. per 1000 newborn (2001). The dominant tendency is to reduce mortality while reducing the birth rate. The average life expectancy of 78.9 years, incl. 75.5 years - Men, 82.6 years old - women.
The age composition of the population: young people up to 14 years old - 14.6%, at the age of 15-64 - 68.2%, 65 years and older - 17.2%. The total number of women is somewhat higher than the number of men. In 2001, every 100 women accounted for 96 men.
The number of employed population is 17 million people. (43% of the total population), 33.4% of the economically active population - women (in 1975 - 23%). The share of economically active male population is reduced due to a reduction in retirement age to 65 and even up to 60 years (in the private sector).
Literacy of the adult population is 98%. The human development index of the human potential is 0.908 (2001).
According to the Constitution, Spain is recognized as a single nation formed on the basis of various ethnic groups and nationalities. The country lives: Castillas (31%), Catalans (19%), Andaliyssets (15%), Valenissy (10%), Galicians (8%), Basque (6%), as well as people of other nationalities: Gypsies (200 thousand .), Portuguese (35 thousand), Jews (15 thousand), Americans, French, etc.
Official language - Spanish (Castilian adverb). The use of the Catalan language (17% of the population), Galician (7%), Basque (2%) and other languages \u200b\u200bof autonomous regions speak on it.
OK. 90% of the Spaniards are believers, 99% of believers - Catholics, there are Protestants, Muslims, Jews.
History of Spain
Ancient Spain was formed as a result of mixing two different races: Celts and Iberov, which were later through the Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian colonization. Rome's victory over Carthage as a result of the 2nd Punic War (208-01 BC) led to the nomanization and urbanization of Iberian communities and the creation of the 1st Roman province with a developed economic and administrative system in their territory. In the beginning. 5 V. The Iberian Peninsula invaded the barbaric tribes of Alanov, Swivels, Vandals and Vestova. The latter formed here the Westgoth Kingdom (with the capital in Toledo), which was strengthened on the basis of the approach of the Spanish-Roman latifundists and the Westgoth military nobility. One of the manifestations of this rapprochement is the transition of vibracy in Catholicism (589). Westgoth period of the history of Spain ends in the beginning. 8 in. In 711-18, the Westgoth Kingdom becomes easy production of Mavrov, the Arab conquerors who have established the Power of the Damas Caliphate in most part of the territory of the peninsula. In 758, a Cordvian Emirate (subsequently calipheat) with a center in Cordov, and afterwards, and the Granada Emirate, are created as a result of long intercructures. In the Arabs (especially in the 10th century. Under Abderrahman III), Spain reached a significant economic and cultural lift. Cordic Caliphate existed for three centuries (8-10 centuries). At 11 c. As a result of the feudalization process, he collapsed into a number of independent Muslim states.
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The Spaniards began the weakening of the Arab states, which began the process of reconquists (inverse lands in the Arabs), which finally ended in 1492 by the taking of Granada. A decisive role in the victory of the Spaniards played an association (1479) as a result of the "dynastic uni" Isabella Castilian and Ferdinanda Aragonian two largest feudal kingdoms of the Pyrenean Peninsula - Castile and Aragon. It marked the beginning of the formation of Spain as a single centralized state and nation. The main instrument of Spanish absolutism was the Inquisition, created in 1480. The most important factor that provided victory was also release (1486) from the serfdom of the Spanish peasantry. October 12, 1492 (the day of the Spanish nation) almost simultaneously with the take of Granada, the event of world-historical significance occurs - the discovery of the New World by Christofore, which marked the beginning of the Great Era geographic discoveries 15-16 centuries. Spain played a primary role in seizing extensive territories in America, Africa, Asia and Europe, becoming a monopoly owner of unreasonable wealth.
To start. 17th century During the initial capital accumulation period, the feudal reaction and the domination of the Inquisition became the brake of economic development of the country. The political and economic decomposition of the Great Spanish monarchy, which began after the Dutch Revolution (1565-1609), ended in 1701-14 of the war for the "Spanish legacy" and the loss of Gibraltar, transferred to England in accordance with Utrecht and Rashtad peace treaties. The first signs of the economic revival (the emergence of manuffs, "economic societies of the nation", conducting public works, etc.) outlined in Spain only during the Board of Charles III (1759-88), the Spanish variety of "enlightened absolutism".
At 19 in. Spain passed through the period of "Napoleonic Wars" (1807-14), the struggle of the American colonies for their independence (1810-26), four democratic revolutions, the Spanish-American War of 1898, who ended with the defeat of Spain and the loss of her last colonies of Cuba, Puerto Rico , Filipino Islands and Guan Islands.
The resulting crisis of the Spanish monarchy and the aggravation of the internal political situation led to the establishment of a military monarchical dictatorship of General Prio de Rivera (1923-29), which, however, could not cope with the task of preserving the monarchy. After a renunciation of the Alphonse XIII, the Republican Board (1931-39), ended by the military insurgency of General F. Franco and the Civil War (1936-39), comes to Spain. With the coming to power, the Franco in the country was created an authoritarian system of government with the suppression of all democratic freedoms and the concentration of all the completeness of political, legislative, executive, judicial and military authorities in the hands of Franco, who has proclaimed himself "responsible only before history and God." The policies of Avtarkia conducted by them was characterized by a high degree of state intervention in the economic and social sphere. With nach 1960s. Spain in the framework of the authoritarian political system rose on the path of liberalization, deregulation and the creation of an "open" market economy. The period of 1960-75 was characterized by a high rate of economic development and was called the "Spanish Economic Miracle". The dismantling of the authoritarian political system that began after the death of Franco (1975) was in consensus of the country's political forces. In 1977, their legal framework became the "Monkloa Caps". They contained a political and economic program of measures necessary for the country's peaceful transition to democracy. In December 1978, a democratic constitution of the country is adopted on a national referendum. In subsequent years, the processes of political transformation of Spanish society, liberalization and a deep structural reform of the economy and the social sphere, as well as the entry of the country in the main international institutions of the West were successfully completed.
State Device and Political System of Spain
Spain is a social, democratic state whose political form is the parliamentary monarchy. There is a constitution approved on a national referendum on December 6, 1978 and entered into force on December 29, 1978.
In administrative terms, Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities of the Kingdom of Spain (Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Balearic Islands, Valencia Community, Galicia, Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castilla - La Mancha, Castilla and Leon, Catalonia, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre , Basque Country, Extremadura). Ceuta and Melilla are also managed as autonomal communities. Each of the communities consists of one or more provinces, total provinces 50. Largest cities: Madrid, Barcelona (1.6 million inhabitants), Las Palmas (897 thousand), Santa Cruz de Tenerife (819), Valencia (739), Seville (701), Zaragoza (604), Malaga (531), Bilbao (531) 354 thousand inhabitants). Nine other Spanish cities - Santiago de Compostela, Granada, Salamanca, Avila, Segovia, Cuenca, Cáceres, Toledo, Cordoba - recognized UNESCO in the property of humanity (more than in any other world of the world).
The head of state is King Juan Carlos I (from November 22, 1975). He is the highest representative of the Spanish state in the international arena, the Supreme Commander, the head of the Supreme Council of Defense, the Garant of Democratic Values \u200b\u200band the Constitution of the country. The king acts and makes decisions from the approval of the country's parliament, which, in turn, shares responsibility with the king for the decisions made. The king appoints the Chairman of the Government (Prime Minister) and on the submission of the Prime Minister of the Cabinet of the Council of Ministers.
The head of the executive power is the chairman of the government, as a rule, is a party leader who has a majority in the Congress of Deputies. Since 1996, this post is occupied by Jose Maria Asnar Lopez. The highest advisory authority of the government is the State Council consisting of 29 members.
Legislative and control functions on government activities are enshrined at parliament (general Cortes), consisting of two chambers. Most of the authority belongs to the Lower Chamber, the Congress of Deputies (350 seats). The bills adopted by them are submitted for consideration by the Upper Chamber - the Senate (259 deputies), but the Congress of Deputies can overcome the Senate veto by a majority vote. Parliament is elected direct, secret voting by the Citizens of Spain, which reached 18 years, for a period of 4 years: Congress deputies - on a proportional basis on the party list, senators - based on territorial representation. 208 senators are chosen by the proportional system from each autonomous community and each province, 51 senator is selected by parliaments of autonomous communities. According to the results of the last parliamentary elections on March 12, 2000, the Senate is distributed as follows: Conservative People's Party (NP) - 127 seats, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (ISRP) - 61 Place, Regional Parties: Catalan Party "Convergence and Union" (KIS) - 8, Basque Nationalist Party (BNP) - 6, Canary Coalition (CC) - 5, Party of Independent Lancer (PNL) - 1st place. As part of the Congress of deputies, NP has 183 deputies (46.6%), ISRP - 125 (34.1%), Kis - 15 (4.2%), the coalition "United left" (OL) - 8 (5.5 %), BNP - 7 (1.5%), KK 4 - (1%), Galician nationalist block (GNB) - 3 (1.3%), Andalusia batch - 1 (0.9%). The President of the Lower Chamber of Deputies - Louise Fernando Ludi, President of the Chamber of Senate - Esperance Agirre Hil de Baedma.
Minolta Digital Camera.
According to the status (approved on a referendum in October 1979), each autonomous community has its own parliament (Legislative Assembly), the president elected by Parliament, and the government with broad authority at the regional level in land use, construction, transport and public works, economic development, tourism, culture, health and education. The President of the Parliament is simultaneously the highest representative of the region at the state level. However, in the event of conflict situations, state interests prevail over regional. The parliaments of autonomous communities are elected for a period of 4 years on a proportional basis on party lists. Each of the 50 provinces has its own municipal council, headed by (after 1997) by the appointed regional authority authorized (Delegado).
The judicial system includes the Supreme Court (Supreme Tribunal), consisting of 20 members appointed by the king for 5 years, 19 Territorial Supreme Courts, First Instance Criminal Courts in each province, district, municipal and special courts. There is also a constitutional court consisting of 12 members appointed by the king for 9 years, which includes control over compliance with the Constitution.
The innovation of the Constitution 1978 is the post of "national defender" of collective rights and personal rights recognized today for all Spanish citizens.
Among the prominent figures of the period of democratic transformations, Spain should be particularly allocated by Adolf Suarez Gonzalez and Philip Gonzalez Marquez. Suarez - Chairman of the Government of Spain in 1976-81 and the ruling centrist party - the Union of the Democratic Center (IDC). The main merit of A. Suarez is the policy of "National Accord", which provided a quick and successful dismantling of the Frankist authoritarian system, which included political amnesty, the legalization of political parties (including KPI), democratic trade unions, restoration of diplomatic relations with the USSR, conducting the first after 1936 free parliamentary elections The victory on which he led by the Centrist Coalition of the CDC, the development and adoption of the Constitution 1978. Gonzalez - the leader of the ISRP, the Chairman of the Government of Spain (in 1982-96), a politician who gave the country to European dynamics. During his stay in power, the ICRP managed to rethink the ideological foundations of the party, to carry out deep structural transformations in the economic and social sphere, more than 3 times raise the level of GDP per capita, to ensure the entry and active membership of Spain in the EU, to modify the Spanish participation system in NATO.
Among the political parties, two nationwide parties are in real influence - the ruling conservative, the Centerful People's Party (Chairman of the Party of Jose Maria Asnar Lopez) and the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (José Louis Rodriguez Sapatero). NP (initial name - the People's Alliance) was established in 1976 as a result of a merger of 7 political groups that received very modest results at the first democratic elections. The founder and chief ideolog of the party is one of the famous socio-political figures of the era of Frankism Manuel Fraga Iribarne. ICRP is one of the oldest in Europe, created in 1879 typographic working Pablo Iglesias. From the moment of creation, before coming to power, the Franco ICRP always played an important role in the political life of the country: he entered the II International, was the largest part of the People's Front during the Civil War of 1936-39. In the Frankist period, being in an illegal position, the party somewhat weakened their activities. However, with NCH. 1970s. In connection with the election of the new Secretary General (F. Bongsalez), the ICRP turns into a leading opposition party of the country. In 1982, she won a triumphal victory, having received support for 12 million votes, which gave her an absolute majority in Parliament (202 deputy mandates in the lower chamber and 134 seats in the Senate), made it possible to form a government office led by Prime Minister Gonzalez. Among the regional parties: BNP (Javier Arsalus Anti, was created in 1985 Sabino Aran, in his ideology of Christian-nationalist); Kisa (President of Jardi Pukhol and Soleer represents the coalition of the democratic convergence of Catalonia and the Democratic Union of Catalonia, both parties were created in the beginning. 1930s, in his ideology - National Centristian); GNB (José Manuel Beras); QK, consisting of 5 parties (Paulino Rivero); Party of independent Lancer (Dimas Martin Martin); The left movement is represented by the United Left Party (OL, the General Coordinator Gaspar Llanasares trigo, was created in 1986 as the election coalition of the Communist Party of Spain (KPI), the Socialist Party (PSD), Republican Left Parts and independent, some other small parties, Subsequently came from the coalition).
The trade union movement, numbering 15 million members, is presented primarily by a rather powerful universal Union of Workers (ESTO) created by ICRP in 1888, the trade union confederation of the working commissions of the leftist, established in 1956 and playing a significant role in the fight against the Frankist regime (there are 900 thousand. Members), pro-government trade union syndicate of workers (PSR), a number of university trade unions. The country also has numerous sectoral and regional entrepreneurial associations, combined into the National Patronage - Spanish Confederation of Entrepreneurs (ICOP), created in 1977, which plays an important role in the development of economic and social policy policies. According to the results of sociological surveys, the Hispanic Catholic Church, including "Opus Dei", enjoys the greatest trust among more than 50% of the Spaniards - a hierarchical clerical organization, in its ideology is trying to combine faith and professional work. Along with loyally tuned to the government, community organizations operate several LeftExstremist organizations: the Basque "Motherland and Freedom" (this), a closed military-terrorist organization, founded in 1959; Grapo ("The Group of Anti-Fascist Resistance October 1"), established in 1975. oppose the constitution and status of the autonomous community, considering it an attempt to eliminate national historical and cultural traditions.
The internal policy of Spain is primarily aimed at the "Construction of the State of Self-Government Regions", ensuring their mutual solidarity. The regionalization process that began in 1978 took place in the following main areas: Development of the status of autonomous communities, conducting administrative reform by the transfer of power and resources to autonomous communities and municipalities through a complex negotiation process and constitutional amendments. Special attention is paid to the development of the policy of smoothing economic and social imbalances within the framework of the Unified EU Regional Policy. There is also an active struggle against the corruption of state and party officials, crime (especially among young people), illegal immigrants.
The foreign policy of modern Spain is formed under the influence of factors arising from its membership in NATO, EU, other international organizations, as well as taking into account bilateral military-political cooperation with the United States, traditional ties with Latin America, the countries of the Mediterranean, the Middle and Middle East. Almost three quarters of the 20th century. Spain for a variety of reasons, primarily due to the forty-flying francist dictatorship, was in a long-term international isolation. Spain retained neutrality in the 1st World War and formally in the period of the 2nd World War, in fact, being an ally of Germany and Italy. In 1950-60s. After a short post-war period of international isolation, the active military-political convergence of Spain begins with the United States, and indirectly - and with NATO, given the key role of Washington in this organization, the course for economic integration with EU countries is taken. However, it was possible to fully normalize its relations with the democratic states of Western Europe, Spain only in the postfrankist period. In 1981-82, the process of signing and ratifying the Protocol on the accession of Spain in NATO is completed. At the same time, the question of the nature of this membership remained open until the national referendum of 1986, who approved the special status of Spain's participation in NATO, limited only by political structures. Entry to the EU (1986) opened the "Green Street" to connect Madrid to the Western European Union (1988), and from January 1, 1990 and the NATO Military Budget. After the collapse of the USSR, Spain fully changes the former concept of national security, which was limited exclusively by defense of its own territory, and becomes an active and full-scale participant in all all-defective actions to ensure collective security, including peacekeeping operations (in the Zone of Persian Gulf, Kosovo, Yugoslavia, etc.). On January 1, 1999, Spain, after a long and complex process of forming the Spanish model of membership in NATO, fully joined its integrated military structure. The main arguments for the adoption of such a decision by the ASNARA Government: the disappearance of bipolarity and the transformation of the Alliance into the largest center of force, the beginning of the NATO expansion to the East, reforming after the end of the "Cold War" of the integrated military structure of NATO and, as a result of this, the threat of turning Spain in a second-delivery partner. Due to the skillful foreign policy maneuvering, Madrid, however, managed to preserve the nuclear-free status of its territory, attract NATO's attention to the problems of the Mediterranean to ensure the safety of its enclaves on the territory of Morocco - Seuts and Melilla, strengthen their negotiating potential in the dispute with the UK on Gibraltar.
A priority place in foreign and defense politics is also bilateral Spanish-American military cooperation, which Madrid can potentially use as a field for maneuvers and an additional "power" lever in solving foreign policy issues. Realizing the importance of the Atlantic direction of its foreign policy, Spain nevertheless enough actively advocates in favor of the development of European identity in the field of defense and security, welcomes the deepening of integration processes within the EU, it is expressed by the consistent "rusting" of the SES into the European Union. In this regard, Madrid believes that strengthening transatlantic solidarity and the development of European integration is two, on the one hand, parallel, and on the other hand, the complementary process that should not oppose each other. Holding within the framework of its foreign policy priorities, Spain does not refuse to actively defend their own position on individual international issues, which may not coincide with the Washington line, NATO partners, the EU and the Zes. However, the degree of such autonomy is not so high to give a reason for the accusations of Madrid in his infidelity principles of Western solidarity.
The total number of Armed Forces Spain is 177.95 thousand people, including 9.4 thousand women. They consist of ground troops - 118.8 thousand people. (including women - 6.6 thousand people), naval - 26.95 thousand people. (1.6 thousand) and military air - 22.75 thousand people. (1.2 thousand) forces. The main areas of posting the Spanish Armed Forces: Land - Balearic and Canary Islands, Ceut's Anklava and Melilla; Naval databases - El Ferrol (Province of La Coruna), San Fernando and Rota (Cadiz), Cartagena (Murcia), Las Palmas and Palma de Mallorca (Canary Islands), Mahon (Menorca). The number of overseas contingent of Spanish peacekeeping forces (in Afghanistan, Bosnia, Yugoslavia) - 2.85 thousand people. The number of reservists is 328.5 thousand people. The American military contingent in Spain is 2.13 thousand people, incl. Naval forces - 2080 people. and Air force - 250 people. Spanish armed forces are completed on the basis of a universal military service (service life of 9 months, a causal age - 20 years). Since December 2002, it was decided to gradually transition to the contract basis, to a fully professional army. Military spending approx. $ 7 billion, or 1.1% of GDP (2001).
Economy Spain
Spain is an industrial-agricultural country with a developed, large-scale and diversified economy. In 2002, in terms of GDP ($ 796 billion), it occupied the 5th place in Western Europe and 13th in the world. GDP per capita - $ 19400, which is 85% of mid-level 4 leading European countries. In 1991-2002, at the rate of average annual increase in GDP (3.1%), Spain a few points ahead of the Middle Equipment. Decisive factors of economic growth - domestic demand (increase of St. 4% annually in 2000-01), exports (9% in 2001), effective state economic policy.
In the sectoral structure, the share of rural, forestry and fishing accounted for 4%, industry and construction - 31%, services - 65% (2002). In agriculture, 8% of the economically active population is employed, in industry and construction - 28%, in the service sector - 64% (2000). Unemployment rate 12.2% (2.3 million people. In 2002), incl. The share of the unemployed in the total number of economically active male population - 9.7%, economically active women - 20.5%, among young people - 28.5%.
For industry, Spain is characterized by an increased proportion of industries working on consumer demand (38.3% in GDP), a relatively lower proportion of product in high-tech (6%), significant imbalances in the regional placement of industry. For three provinces - Catalonia, Valencia, Madrid accounts for almost 50% of the country's GDP. The manufacturing industry accounts for 19% of GDP (2001), incl. on the machine-building complex (transport, general, electrical, radio electronic engineering) 34% of GDP. The main driving force of the industrial development of Spain is the sector of telecommunications and information technologies (8% of GDP), the automotive industry (6% of GDP, or St. 3 million cars per year, 80% of which is exported, 2001). Unlike the automotive industry, practically fully controlled by foreign capital, in the information and telecommunication sector of the country, the world-famous Spanish TNC "Teleminika" is occupied, which controls the 1/10 world information technology market. In general, Spain on a number of manufacturing indicators (production of cars, machines, telecommunications equipment, petrochemical, chemical, textile products, and shoe products - 159 million pairs per year, the digestive industry) is included in the top ten of world manufacturers. Among other industries of the manufacturing industry are allocated: shipbuilding, black and non-ferrous metallurgy, pharmaceutical industry, construction of building materials and cement (38 million tons). From the branches of the fuel and energy complex with the highest dynamics, the oil refining, gas industry, nuclear power industry is characterized by the greatest dynamics. Electricity production - 223 billion / kW / h (2001). The oldest sector of the National Economy - the mining industry (less than 1% of GDP and 0.5% of all employed in industry) is represented by enterprises for the extraction and processing of metal ores, coal (23.4 million tons), zinc, copper, tin, tungsten, manganese, mercury (2.5 thousand tons, 30% of world production, 1st place in the world).
In agriculture, 40% of the cost of agrarian products falls on animal husbandry and poultry farming, 35% - on vegetable growing, gardening and viticulture (27.9 million tons in 2001), 25% on the grain sector. Despite the relatively developed and diversified agriculture, the latter is non-less unable to provide the country with such food products, like grain, meat, dairy products. The main, the most competitive types of agrarian products are citrus: oranges (40% of world production, 1st place in the world) and lemons (15%, 2nd place), olives and olive oil (1st place in the world), tomatoes , bone (peaches, apricots, plums) and seeds (apples, pears) culture, nuts (almonds). In the sizes of vineyards, Spain occupies 2nd place in the EU (after France), for the production of wine 4th place in the world. Bananas, potatoes, sacrarans (sugar beets and reeds), cotton, tobacco are also grown. Production of grain (wheat, barley, corn, oats) is oriented mainly on the domestic market. Spain is the 3rd grain imported in the world. The only type of grain, which Spain traditionally exports is rice. Livestock is mostly small and extensive. Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, mules and donkeys, a special livestock of bulls for Bulls are divorced. Production of livestock and birds per capita in a slaughter form - 118 kg. The fishing industry is one of the largest in Europe (1% GDP). Fish catch and mining other seafood per capita - 28.1 kg (2001).
The service sector provides 3.5% of the annual GDP growth (2001). Leading industry services: trade and public catering (22.5% of GDP), tourism (11% of GDP), monetary scope (7% of GDP).
In 2001, Spain visited 74.4 million foreign tourists (2nd place in the world after France), including 26.2 million so-called excursions (no night). Revenues from tourism amounted to almost $ 40 billion (3rd place in the world after the United States, France). 91% of tourists come to Spain from Europe. Departure russian tourists Spain was 221 thousand people. (2001). Revenues from tourism covered on a 136.6% negative balance of the country's trade balance, provide the work of 1.3 million people, have an impact on the development of transport and other industries. The area of \u200b\u200btourism in Spain is under the control of the state, which is largely due to the possibilities of the country itself to develop tourist business, the desire to maintain historical monuments His culture.
In the monetary system of Spain there are approx. 150 banks with the total branches of 17,727 and the total number of employed 138,386 people. (2000). The Central Bank develops and implements credit and monetary policy, taking into account the introduction of the euro in the country. The characteristic feature of the banking system of Spain is an extremely high level of concentration and centralization of production and capital. With gray 1980s, especially after Spain's accession to the EU, this process intensified even more. Four leading Spanish banks account for over 60% of bank deposits of the country. The high level of capital centralization is also characteristic of Spanish savings checks. In the beginning. 1990s. As a result of a series of mergers and acquisitions, two leading savings cash registers were created, accumulating St. 90% of personal savings of Spanish citizens.
The length of highways is 663.8 thousand km, incl. With a solid coating - 657.2 km (99%). Railways 12.5 thousand km (from them electrified - 7.1 thousand km). The main part of the railways belongs to the state company Renfe. By 2004 it is planned to begin the process of partial privatization of the company. Sea transport is transported by 80% of imported and 70% of export cargo, 1502 maritime commercial vessels are involved in the total displacement of St. 2 million tons. The number of airports is 110 (including private), their annual bandwidth is St. 80 million passengers. Number of users mobile phones 12 million people (2002), Internet 4.6 million people. (2001).
The Constitution of Spain defines the economic model of the country as a "free market economy" that state administration authorities "guarantee and protect in accordance with the requirements of general economic development and planning." At the same time, the state remains exceptional competence in economic policy issues. It is envisaged that the state will also "regulate the free private initiative on the basis of the country's general economic interests." The strategic task of the economic policy of the 1990s. - achieving the economic indicators of the EU Maastricht Agreements. Much attention is paid to the development of small and medium-sized businesses, the structural restructuring of industry and the banking sector, including the privatization of individual state-owned enterprises. For 1993-2002, the budget deficit decreased from 7.1 to 1.1%, the inflation rate from 11.4 to 3.4%. The public debt is almost $ 63 billion (2002).
The structural restructuring of the industry is aimed at creating high-tech industries, modernization of production and rationalization of management structures of crisis industries (textile, shipbuilding, coal, energy, oil refining, black metallurgy) in order to increase their competitiveness, phased privatization of individual state enterprises, revision of their subsidies in order to increase their competitiveness performance efficiency. In general, the industry is raised the task of productivity growth, improve the quality of goods produced, increase the specific gravity (by 20-25%) goods with high added value, the elimination of excessive production facilities, achieve the optimal ratio of employment and technology by closing outdated shops and installations, replacement Their new high-performance equipment types. The main conductor of industrial policy is the Ministry of Industry, which is developing medium-term industrial development programs in general, as well as individual industries.
The most priority areas of state economic policy include the development of small and medium-sized businesses, whose role in the country's economy is exceptionally large. 97% of companies with a number of employed up to 50 people. There are 46% of employed and 60% of the total GDP volume. Special attention from the state (in terms of tax and preferential stimulation) is so-called. Sector of the public economy - the company of workers, cooperatives of united labor, collective action society, etc., combining (unlike public and private enterprises) commercial and social functions.
Tax reform was carried out in several stages and was aimed primarily to eliminate the anachronism of the taxation of the Frankist period. In the course of the reform, the ratio between direct and indirect taxes was given to the larger correspondence, the share of the latter decreased by almost 1.5 times; By the introduction of the progressive tax scale, the tax burden of the most secured layers of the population increased; Tax benefits lost land owners and the heirs of major states, added value added tax (instead of two dozen taxes existing under Frankizm), a progressive scale of taxation on the income of the entrepreneurial sector, improved the fiscal inspection and penalties. As a result of a sharp increase in tax collection, their share in GDP increased from 16% in 1975 to almost 37% in 2001.
The income and expenses of the state budget are 105 and $ 109 billion, respectively. (2000). 96% of the total volume of budget revenues falls on taxes, incl. Straight 29.7%, indirect 21%, deductions to the social fund 39%, property taxes 0.2%. In 2001, the central budget of the country controlled 65% of government spending compared with 90% in 1975, and without state-owned enterprises and social security systems - only 35%. Decentralization of budget funds and their transfer to the regional level is carried out mainly in the form of targeted subsidies on the line of inter-territorial compensation fund (FMK, created in 1984). The volume of financing of the regions is calculated according to a certain formula and automatically increases every 5 years. In the competence of the Center there are only long-term investments with the right of local authorities (at the level of municipalities) independently choose the mechanism for financing their investment projects. Along with the decentralization of budget funds, significant changes took place in the directions of their spending: the costs of state administration (reducing the share of wages of government officials) and military needs were reduced. In the structure of budget spending, the main volume (St. 50%) accounts for social security, health, education and culture, for state administration of 5.5%, for defense 3.2%.
Monetary policy ensured financial stability and coordination of economic policies in strict accordance with the tasks and priorities of structural reforms. At the same time, much attention was paid to the structural restructuring of the banking sector in the direction of its diversification (increasing the role of foreign banks, investment funds and insurance companies), overcoming emergency closets and orientation mainly on the domestic market (up to par. 1980s. Participation of even the largest national banks in International operations amounted to a little more than 1%), reducing direct state control over the financial and credit system, gradually integrating it into the EU monetary system. With the creation of a single internal EU market (1993), the last restrictions on the way of free capital movement were removed. In particular, the liberalized exit of Spanish securities for international financial markets, legislation is adopted, allowing credit operations between residents and non-residents, the opening of accounts by residents abroad, the national currency has become fully convertible. The only limitation that has been preserved for non-residents - they cannot invest their funds in the "National Interest" industry: Railways, Radio, Television, Military Industry.
The main priorities of social policy are the fight against unemployment, the field of education, health care, social security. In 2001, government spending on the social sphere amounted to 16% of GDP (against 8% in 1975). Social security system is represented by a single and 5 special modes (for agricultural workers, miners, economically active population, civil servants and military) covering 95.5% of the country's population. 2/3 Social Security Systems is on the payment of social revenues (pensions in old age, disability, insurance payments from accidents, etc.), 50% of these payments - old-age pensions. Sources of social benefits: budget financing and contributions to the social insurance system (66% of the total amount of social spending), incl. Entrepreneurial contributions (85%), feasible contributions (15%). Pension payments (in old age) and unemployment benefits amount to more than 55% (14.5% in 1975) of the total amount of social security. Along with a relatively high average pension size (60-100% of the average wage), the annual increase in the volume of the minimum retirement and the mechanism of indexing pensions (at the beginning of each fiscal year), depending on the growth rates of consumer prices, increased the pension system handling, The State Council for the Elderly Affairs, which coordinates the activities of relevant regional departments involved in the development and implementation of gerontological plans is established. The influence of private pension funds, despite the high dynamics of their growth, remains insignificant yet. They cover 20% of the economically active population of the country, and the volume of 5% accumulated funds. Unemployment benefits receive 70% of the total number of unemployed.
The health system is predominantly state. The share of public health expenditures 7.4% of GDP (2001). The administrative and organizational functions of the management system at the federal level are assigned to the National Institute of Health, which works in close cooperation with most subordinate to him and with independent regional health authorities. Taking 83% of health expenditures, the government has largely strengthened the prestige of the state health system, ensured a high quality level of public health services and free access to them 99.5% of the country's population. At the first stage of clinical treatment, patients pay only 40% of the cost of drugs, chronically patients with 10%, pensioners are fully exempted from their payment. The state finances 70% of the pharmaceutical goods sold in the domestic market, which is one of the highest indicators in the EU.
Foreign economic policy is aimed at developing exports, diversify its commodity and geographic structure, reducing trade deficit. Spain's share in world trade rose from 1.6% in 1975 to 4.4% in 2001, incl. By export from 0.7 to 1.9%, import from 0.9 to 2.5%, respectively. Exports of goods $ 111 billion: Agricultural raw materials and food accounts for 19%, semi-finished products - 40%, ready-made industrial goods - 41% (of which, on high-tech products - 8%, 2001). Imports of $ 144 billion. Almost 60% of Spanish imports are agricultural and food products, raw materials, energy and technologically complex manufacturing products. The main articles of engineering exports (21% of the total exportation) are vehicles (cars, vessels and ship equipment, machine tools for easy and food industry, equipment for nuclear power plants). Among the export specialization of Spain - petroleum products (6% of world exports), products of black and non-ferrous metallurgy, food, lightweight and shoe industry, building materials, cement. In imports, the proportion of high-tech products, oil and petroleum products, chemical goods, metals and products of them, coniferous lumber, food (10%), inclible, including Grains (30% of all food purchases). Main trading partners: EU (approx. 70% of foreign trade turnover); Developing countries (18%), incl. Latin America countries (9%); USA (5%); China and Japan (3%); Countries of Central and Eastern Europe (4%), including the Russian Federation (1.6%).
One of the main problems of Spanish foreign trade is a chronic trading deficit ($ 30 billion in 2001). Despite the accelerated growth rates of commodity export, the export coverage of imports tends to reduce. In 2001, he amounted to 74% against 80% in 1995.
The inflow of foreign direct investment in Spain $ 36 billion (2001), and the amount of accumulated foreign direct investment is $ 160 billion (2001). Major investors: EU (approx. 70% of the total volume) and the United States (17%). The volume of accumulated direct Spanish investments abroad is also large - 160 billion dollars, of which 60% falls on Latin America, 35% on the EU. The negative balance of payment balance for current operations is 19 billion dollars. (2001), state foreign debt 90 billion dollars. (1997).
In 2000, Spain's exports in the Russian Federation amounted to 0.7 billion dollars, imports - 1.6 billion dollars; sv. 80% accounted for oil and other commodities. Compared to 1995, the annual influx of Spanish investments in the Russian economy increased by more than 2 times, the total amount of accumulated Spanish investments in the Russian Federation is approx. $ 100 million (2000).
Spain Science and Culture
In 2002, education expenses amounted to 6% in GDP (against 2.3% in 1975), in the budget - 12%, incl. On the initial 33.3%, the average is 47.9%, the highest 16.9%. Education is mainly state, four-level: pre-school, secondary mandatory (from 6 to 16 years), optional special (from 16 to 18 years), university. The education system over the years of democratic transformations has undergone significant reform in the direction of universalization and openness for all social groups, decentralization of management, and most importantly - to improve the qualitative level of training-oriented standards for the preparation of labor. The management of secondary education system is transferred to the regional level, preschool and primary education - municipalities. Only regulatory, controlling and coordinating functions in a nationwide, including the distribution of funds for educational purposes, remain under the central government. The deadlines for compulsory free secondary education increased to 10 years, including secondary vocational education, which is obtained by 30% of Spanish students. In general, 90% of children under the age of 16 are graduates of secondary schools (2001). The proportion of persons aged 25-34 years with incomplete secondary education in the total number of employed fell to 45%, at the age of 20-24 years - up to 15%, while among the 55-year-olds this indicator - St. 90%. A system of vocational training and retraining of personnel has been created (practically not existing in Franco) for the adult population of the country, including further employment in a new specialty. Vocational training programs are developed at the regional administration level in collaboration with local educational institutions, entrepreneurial associations and trade unions, taking into account the real demand for labor. For the 1980-2001, the number of student young people increased from 500 thousand to more than 1.5 million (30.5% of the total number of youth), and the share of persons with higher education in the total function of the working-age population increased from 5 to almost 9%. By ensuring the complete independence of the educational process of universities and their autonomy, the state nevertheless assumed the bulk of higher education financing: 47 (out of 57) of higher educational institutions of today's Spain are state, 97% of the total number of student youth of the country are studying.
The share of R & D in GDP rose from 0.5% in 1975 to 1.1% in 2002. The number of scientists in the total number of employed doubled and amounted to 120,618 people. (2000). The number of scientists who received a doctorate increased by 33%, incl. in the technical field by 50%. State share in R & D financing 47% (2000). The first National Development Plan of R & D was adopted in 1986, it was complemented by a number of sectoral plans for the development of high-tech industries (electronic industry, automation and computerization, new materials, biotechnology). There is a center for the development of technology and industry. The task of the Center is to attract large foreign investors in high-tech industries in exchange for tax breaks and loans, the preparation of senior management and engineering personnel, especially in the field of information technology. I. actively participates in EU scientific and technical programs.
Spanish culture is a unique synthesis of Romance (Latin), Arab, European and, of course, distinctive national culture. The main real embodiment of this synthesis is Spanish, belonging to the Romance Group of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bwith a significant admixture of Arab words. The centuries-old impact of Islamic culture is no less noticeable in numerous literary (in Spanish folklore) and architectural monuments of Cordoba, Malaga, Seville, Zaragoza, Granada. The period of 12-15 centuries. associated with the advent of the first national epic "poems about my Side", Castilian literature, introduction of typography (1474), the creation of the original poetic lyrics (famous Spanish romances), the architectural masterpieces of Juan de Errera, the artistic creations of Luis de Morales and El Greco, who reflected the era of humanism and became the harborers of the golden century of Spanish culture. His most vivid representatives: Miguel Cervantes de Saoveoverov, Lope Felis de Vega Carpio, Tirsco de Molina, Pedro Calderon de la Barka (in literature), Diego Velasquez, F. Surbaran, H. Ribera, Bartoloma Esteban Murillio (in painting). Spanish culture of the 19th century, which was influenced by French classicism, and later neoclassicism, is associated with the literary names of Manuel José Kintan, Benito Peres Galdos, in painting, she was marked by the appearance of a genius artist Francisco de Goya, in architecture left such creations as the Prado Museum in Madrid . At the turn of 19-20 centuries. The grantee of the largest Spanish philosopher and the historian of the Spanish literature Marcelino Menendes-I-Pelaio, which had a huge impact on the subsequent generation of Spanish scientists, social and political figures, philosophers and writers. A decisive role in the creation of a Spanish culture of 20 V. Two generations played: the so-called "generation of 98 years", which in the spiritual plan was impressed by the "national catastrophe" of Spain, caused by its defeat in the war of 1898, and "Generation of the 30s.", Witnesses of another historical tragedy of the Spanish people - Civil War 1936-39. The most vivid representatives of these two generations of Spanish writers, philosophers and socio-political figures are Miguel de Namununo-I-Huso, Pio Baroho-I-Nomi, Asorin (José Martinez Luis), Antonio Machado, Garcia Lorca, and others, who were tensely searched for " The national idea of \u200b\u200bSpain, the path of its further spiritual, economic and political revival. Other directions of cultural development of Spain in the 20th century. Associated with the names of the Great Catalan architect Antonio Gaudi, which posted the beginning of the era of modernism and avant-garde in Spanish art. Pablo Ruiz Picasso, Salvador Dali and Joan Miro were the greatest representatives of the latter. In the past decade, the contribution of Spain to world culture was made outstanding architects of modern Calatrava, sut, Bilol, artists and sculptures Tapies, Antonio Lopez, Barcelo, Chilide, and others, who expressed themselves in the creations of a huge author's personality.
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Kingdom Spain (Espana - Spanish and Spain - in English) - the state located in the south-west of Europe and occupies most of the Pyrenean - also known as the Iberian Peninsula. In addition, Spain owns a number of overseas territories: Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean; Balearic and Pitius Islands in the Mediterranean and the Autonomous Cities of Ceuta and Melilla on the Northern Coast of Africa.
- In the West of the Pyrenean Peninsula Spain bordered by Portugal, in the south - with the British territory of Gibraltar, in the north the country has a common border with France and Microscopic Andorra, and in the North Africa also with Morocco
- In the West and the North, Spanish shores are washed by the open atlantic ocean and the Biscay bay (also known as the Cantabry Sea), and in the East and South - the Mediterranean Sea
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Basic information about Spain
As in Europe, in Europe, there are not so many populated megacities - only two cities of Spain have overcome a mark in a million inhabitants. This is Madrid and Barcelona. In the number of inhabitants, even individuals cannot compete with the capital of Spain, Madrid (3.3 million inhabitants in the city itself and 6 million inhabitants in the metropolitan-arena).
The second place occupies the capital of the most economically developed field of the country (Catalonia), Barcelona, \u200b\u200bwhich considers among its inhabitants over 1.6 million people. In third place, Valencia, the capital of the community of the same name - over 800 thousand inhabitants, on the fourth, the beautiful Andalusian capital, Seville (700 thousand people).
The Aragonese Zaragoza closes the first five of the country's most populated cities, practically equal to Seville in the number of residents (over 700 thousand). On 6th place the dynamically developing capital of Costa del Sol, Malaga (570 thousand inhabitants).
Spain was and remains a country of exclusively popular among tourists: in the number of foreigners taken for the year, it is inferior only to the neighboring France. Signal sights of Spain are calculated dozens.
Sights of Spain
We mention only those that hear. The Palace-monastery Escorial under Madrid, marked by the seal of Geniya Antonio Gaudi Cathedral Sagrada Sagradia in Barcelona - the most, perhaps, the unusual temple in the world, the Fortress of the Moorish kings in Granada, Alhambra, Monastery Montserrat in the cliffs of Catalonia, Seville Cathedral - Second largest Catholic Church ( More only in Rome) Europe, even known to those who have never been to this country.
Those who are going to visit Spain will be able to discover a lot of no less interesting places. Almost any city of the country, ranging from Madrid's metropolis, Barcelona, \u200b\u200bValencia or Seville and ending with provincial centers like Bilbao, Valladolid, Burgos, Zaragoza, Toledo has an exclusively ancient history and its own sights.
- The resorts of Spain are also naturally popular - the most important and belonging sights of the landmarks of this country are also popular. Their number is so great that many allow themselves to distinguish the city, reporting easily: food on the Costa Brava, Costa Blanca, Costa del Sol, Costa Verde or some other, smaller, "costa".
The town or now extensive places, entire municipalities, the only reason for the growth of which was the influx of foreign holidaymakers - such as Benidorm, Marbella, Alicante, or entire resort islands, Ibiza or Tenerife, are known far beyond the country and even outside the continent.
Administratively Spain is divided into 17 autonomous areas (Autonomous Community) and 2 autonomous cities. Area: Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Balearic Islands, Valencia, Galicia, Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castilla - La Mancha, Castilla and Leon, Catalonia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, Rioja, Country of Basque and Extremadura. Cities (on African Continent): Ceuta and Melilla.
According to the political structure, Spain is a constitutional monarchy. The Supreme Head of State is the king. The Executive Power in the country is represented by the Cabinet-Ministers at the head of the Prime Minister - the leader of the party who won the parliamentary elections.
- Home Legislative Power of the country: Two-Parliament or Cortes Generales (Cortes Generales), consisting of the Senate (Upper Chamber) and Congress of Deputies (Lower Chamber), re-elected every four years.
Spain is entirely installed in the European Economic and Defense System: the country is a member of the European Union, the Eurozone (euro walking zones, as the main currency) and NATO. Also included in the international organizations of the UN and WTO.
Perhaps, thanks to this, Spain has a developed economy: fifth on turnover in the European Union and the fourth in the eurozone. Approximate gross domestic product (GDP) in 2011 should be about 1 trillion 400 billion euros. That is, the soul of each Spaniards per year is produced by goods and services for 30 thousand European "rubles".
- By the way, judging by the research of the German newspaper Die Welt, if it were not for the global financial crisis, hit the hammer in Spain, then by 2011 the country would overtake Germany on average per capita income
The following sectors are considered to be the following sectors: Mechanical Engineering and Textile Industry (about car seat and clothing Zara, few people did not hear), tourism (provides about 5% of GDP), banking sphere (Bank of Santander is the largest in the Eurozone), as well as winemaking and olive oil production . According to the last two branches of human activity, the Pyrenean country occupies a leading position in Europe.
Spain - The state in the south-west of Europe occupies about 85% of the territory of the Pyrenean Peninsula, As well as the Balearic and Pitiuses in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. Total area of \u200b\u200bthe country - about 505 thousand sq.km. . Number Population 40.45 million people.
Spain borders with France, Portugal and Andorra, and English colony Gibraltar . Spain is a kind of bridge between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic, an important crossroads of the sea routes going through the Gibraltar Strait.
Spain (tourist map)
Spain after Switzerland is considered the most high-mountainous country of Europe. Plateau and mountains make up about 90% of its territory. Almost half of the territory of the country takes The biggest in Europe High plogramier knee (in Spanish - "Table"), its average height of 660 m. Places - These are huge monotonous dry flat spaces with very hot summer and cold winter.
The entire southeast of the Pyrenean Peninsula is engaged in Cordillery Betika, which is a system mountains and ridges. The highest mountain range - Sierra Nevada - is inferior in alpine alps in Europe. Here is located highest top The Pyrenean Peninsula - Mount Mulasen (3478 m). Valley, basins and lowlands take up only 11% of the country's territory. The largest plain - Andaluskaya, on which the Guadalquivir River proceeds. In the northeast of the country, in the Valley of the Ebro River, the Aragon Plain spread. The non-lane is stretching lowland along the Mediterranean coast.
Madrid. Royal Palace.
Spain is divided into 17 autonomous regions (which combine 50 provinces): Madrid , Catalonia , Valencia, Basque Country, Navarre, La Rioja, Murcia, Aragon, Andalusia, Cantabria, Castile Leon, Castilla La Mancha, Asturias, Galicia, Extremadura, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands. The capital of country - Madrid . In its political device, modern Spain is Parliamentary monarchy . The country has a two-chamber parliament and a multi-party system . King of Spain since 1975 is an Juan Carlos I. . Each autonomous region of Spain has its own parliament and government . Members of the provincial municipalities are elected by communities and together with the regional parliaments send their representatives to the Senate of the National Legislative Assembly in Madrid ( Cortes ; Cortes Generales). The second Chamber of Cortesov consists of deputies elected by direct common voting.
Barcelona. Church of Sagrada Familia. 1884-1926 years. Architect Antonio Gaudi.
Canary Islands. The resort of Playa de Las Americas on Tenerife.
Natural conditions
Natural contrasts in Spain Are striking: if the Northwest of the country occupies one of the first places in Europe by the amount of precipitation, then in the south of Spain, the most arid area of \u200b\u200bthis part of the world, you can find almost African semi-desert landscapes with thickets of fan dwarf palm trees, the only wild palm trees in Europe. Approximately 60% of the territory of Spain is arid, therefore the problem of water is one of the most important in the country. Spain's hydrocessures are extremely unevenly distributed: in the northern and northwestern regions - water in excess, while in the Mediterranean and central regions there is a huge lack of water. The main rivers of the country - Ebro, Tahoe, Guadiana, Duero, Mino, Guadalquivir, Khukuba. Most of the rivers are small, in the summer they are very melting. They almost have no transport value. The only shipping river is Guadalquivir, and even then only to the city of Seville.
Spain. View of the Pyrenees.
The climate of Spain can be considered one of its main natural resources. In terms of the number of sunny days a year, Spain together with Italy and Greece divides first place in Europe. Almost all of Spain is located in the subtropical belt and in its natural conditions as a whole is close to other Mediterranean countries, but at the same time different and significant originality. This is primarily due to the wasolation of the Pyrenean Peninsula from the rest of Europe, the proximity of the African continent, as well as difficult influence mountain Relief And two huge water areas - the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. For the most part of Spain, especially on her eastern coastClimate is typically Mediterranean, with dry hot summer, soft rainy winter, early spring and long warm autumn. It rains are most often in the form of short winter rainstones.
In the summer, the continental air masses coming from the south are dominated in Spain - from the tropical latitudes of North Africa and from north - from the highly heated areas of Southeastern Europe. The average temperatures of the hottest month (July) reach 18-20 ° C in coastal areas north and northwest and 26 ° C on the Mediterranean coast. In Southern Spain, up to 200 days a year, the average daily temperature does not fall below 25 ° C.
Aragon. Peak Montuneza near the city of Ainsa in the province of Wesk.
Freshness and coolness in the hot season are brought on the coast of Breeze - winds changing the direction depending on the time of day. Day breeze blowing from the sea to land, and at night - from sushi to the sea. Breeze is characteristic mainly for summer months, less often come in spring and autumn and even less often - in winter. In winter, the western transfer of the air masses is happening, so the wet sea air of moderate latitudes is playing a large role, which comes with cyclones from the Atlantic. The average temperatures of January from 8-10 ° C in the northern and middle part, up to 10-12 ° C in South.
In winter, the Mediterranean is brought to experience the burning breath of sirocco (streams of dry tropical air from the deserts of North Africa and Arabia, sometimes with a huge amount of dust and sand). The relative humidity of the air, bringing such winds, is very small - only 5-8%, and sometimes even 2%. If Sirocco blows, the dusty haze almost always keeps in the air, during the day it seems yellowish, and when sunrise and sunset - brown-red. Passing over the sea, Sirocco is saturated with moisture, so warm and wet wind is blowing in the northeastern part of the Spanish Mediterranean - Bolhorno. Such a wind brings cloud weather with drizzling rains, and sometimes blows with a cloudless sky, and in that and in another case it happens very stuffy. Bolhorno acts on people and animals in oppressing and is considered one of the most unpleasant weather phenomena. Dry Syrocco, despite the high temperature, is transferred relatively easily.
In quantity and distribution Running precipitation The whole territory of the country is customary to divide on "wet" Spain (North and North-West) and "dry" (central, southern and eastern regions). The precipitation in the "wet" Spain (up to 900 mm per year) falls out during the year quite evenly, their number is only slightly decreased in the summer. In the "Dry" Spain, the annual precipitation amount does not exceed 500 mm, and they fall predominantly in spring and autumn. In the distribution during the year, the number of cloudless days in different parts of Spain also there are strong differences. The minimum number of sunny days (30 days a year) is observed in the northwestern Atlantic coast, while on the Mediterranean coast almost all year round shines the sun (more than 150 days a year).
Economy
Until the middle of the 20th century The Spain's economy was almost completely dependent on agriculture, in the 1950s after the opening of the country there was some increase in economics. The 1980s became known as the period of the Spanish Economic Miracle, which, however, did not eliminate the three main problems of the country: a high level of unemployment (almost 23%), inflation and large public debts.
Increasingly important For modern Spain, the service sector acquires: 60% of all workers are occupied in this area, 31% work in industry and about 10% are engaged in agriculture, fishing and mining. In the service sector, tourism has state importance. In 1960-1970 Foreign tourism concentrated in coastal areas, the state policy consisted in attracting as much tourists as possible, which turned into some negative consequences, including the emergence of a set of coastal faceless facilities from concrete and glass, deterioration of the landscape and environmental issues, which to this day suffer Some areas of the country. Starting from the 1980s, the authorities are trying to accept countermeasures: from the influx of guests should be made not only seaside resortsBut the districts located in the country's depths and, if possible throughout the year.
In agriculture Many areas of Spain, a decisive role continues to play manual or weakly mechanized work. Low-loaded small businesses, have long been involved in self-sufficiency, are still dominated in North and East Spain. Abundant yields give irrigated vegetable and fruit plantations of coastal provinces of Valencia and Murcia. A real abundance of citrus, tomatoes, strawberries, peaches and sweet peppers flows on sale and for exports, while fragrant sweet apples and mushmula is rarely exported. Olive trees are planted on arid fields and sunflower production (oil production) is bred, and almonds and grapes are cultivated. The fleet of Spanish sea fishing vessels is the most numerous in Europe, but fishermen have to deal with the fall of the EU quotas on fishing.
Most developed Industrial areas are Barcelona, \u200b\u200bValencia (car production, textiles, chemical products), Bilbao. and Hichon (steel production, shipbuilding and ship repair). Madrid acquires increasing importance (especially due to the electrical engineering, the development of information technology and mechanical engineering). In difficult position there are shipbuilding and heavy industry, which is particularly affected by the economy of the Asturias and the Basque countries. On the other hand, companies are developing as the Energy Concern Republic. Over half of the electricity give coal power plants and power plants operating on liquid fuel, third - nuclear power plants and 15% - hydroelectric power plants. The most important minerals of Spain - coal, iron ore, lead, copper and mercury, their deposits are located on the northern coast of the Atlantic.
History
First Archaeological finds indicating the settlement of the Pyrenean Peninsula belong to the period of the Lower Paleolithic. In the first millennium BC. Celtober tribes arose as a result of mixing the Indo-European tribes of Celts and Iberov, presumably belonging to the Khamitian tribes. In the 3rd century BC The south of the peninsula was captured by Carthagean, then after victories of Scypion, the nomanization of the peninsula began. The name "Spain" - Phoenician origin. The Romans used it in a plural (chispaniae) to designate the entire Pyrenean Peninsula. In the 1st century BC There is an active development of the Iberian colonies of Rome - built aqueducts in Segovia, Tarragona, Merida, theaters in Merida, Tarragona and Sigunto.
Spain. Roman aqueducts.
Christianity was distributed in Spain during the first century of our era, but initially the Romans prevented this, pursuing and betraying the martyrdom of many Christians. In 409, Spain was subject to the invasion of the Army of the German tribes , and by 419 Formed Westgoth kingdom . Capital of state Visigoths becomes Toledo . In the 8th century, the period of Muslim Spain begins . In 711. The Arabs under the leadership of Tariq landed in the tariff and broke the troops of Don Rodrigo in the battle of the Guadalet, the last Westgoth king. For five years, Arabs occupied almost the entire peninsula with the exception of Cantabria and the Pyrenean part. They are still stopped by Karl Martell, having won with Poitiers (732 ). In 772 year Army under the leadership of the Westgoth King Pelaio (Pelayo ) Printed the first symbolic defeat of Masters at Kavadong in the north of Spain.
This battle noted Beginning of reconquists - Returns to Christians of Spanish lands engaged in Muslims. Most of the peninsula was conquered by Christians to 1266 . In 1492. Arabs lose their latest possession on the Pyrenean Peninsula - Granada . Completion of reconquists I. Association of Spain based on the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon is connected with the names Catholic kings - Isabella I Castile and Ferdinand II Aragon concluded Brag in 1469. .
Granada. View from the walls of Alhambra.
In 1516, the King Ferdinand replaced his grandson of Karl, who belonged to the Habsburg dynasty. Madrid became the capital of Spain in 1561 with Philip II . The 16th century, associated with the opening of the new light, is the time of the indisputable maritime domination of Spain, which was shaken after the defeat of the "invincible Armada" by the British in 1588. In the 17th century, Spain is drawn up in a 30-year-old war with the Netherlands, France and England, which leads to a serious economic crisis in the country. In 1700, the last Spanish king of the Dynasty of Habsburg Karl II dies childlessly, the struggle for the Spanish throne between the Austrian branch of the Habsburg Dynasty and French Bourbons, ending with the Utrecht world and the establishment of the Bourbon Board. It brings Spain a meritor, life begins to line up the French pattern. So goes on until 1808, when Napoleon captures Spain, announcing her king of his brother Joseph Bonaparte.
After the expulsion of the French from Spain, Ferdinand VII returns to the throne, which, however, does not bring tranquility. The policy of the country of this period is known by the "carlisty wars" - the rivalry of liberals and conservatives, the proclamation of the first republic, the coupling and restoration of the monarchy. At the end of the 19th century, Spain loses its latest overseas possessions (Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines).
Spain of the beginning of the 20th century is in a painful choice between military dictatorial regimes and the establishment of republican rule . From 1923 to 1930 The period of the military lasts Dictatorship of General Miguel Prio de River. After the elections of 1931 proclaimed republic, And the king of Alfons XIII is forced to leave Spain. After the "Two Black Years" of the Right Government (1934-1936), the left folk front wins the election, the society is divided into two camps - supporting the people's front and supporting the commander of the garrison in Morocco General Franco, who opposed the republic. The nationalists of General Franco support monarchists, church, as well as the right wing of phalangeists (Spanish fascists). IN 1936 - 1939. In Spain there is a civil war Blowing in Life more than 600 thousand people , out of which 400 thousand became victims of the political terror of the Franco regime .
Period 1939 - 1975 known as a dictatorship of Franco, at this time the power in the country belongs catholic church, military and large landowners. In 1969, at the proposal of Franco, his successor as head of state and the future king of Spain was approved by Juan Carlos de Bourbon, Alphonse XIII grandson. After the death of Franco in 1975, Spain becomes a parliamentary monarchy led by King Juan Carlos I. On December 12, 1978, a new democratic constitution of Spain was adopted. After the military coup in 1981 in 1982, the Socialists defeated the parliamentary elections, Felipe Gonzalez remains the Prime Minister until 1996 . In 1982, Spain joined NATO, in 1986 he became a member of the EU .
Seville. Panorama of the city.
Rapid of Spain with the rest of the European Community significantly raised the prestige of the country, its political and economic openness and attractiveness for tourists increased. In 1992, the Summer Olympic Games were held in Barcelona, \u200b\u200bMadrid was announced European city Culture, A. Seville Accepted the International Expo-92 exhibition. In the country, the 500th anniversary of the opening of the Columbus of America was also widely noted. In the 21st century, Spain entered a democratic and fast-growing state, one of the most interesting and attractive in Europe.
Spain. Beach on Costa Blanca.
Spain. Costa Brava coast in Catalonia.
In the 1980s. Spain survived the economic boom associated with the development of tourism and the development of the recreational potential of its territory. Different regions Coast of Spain, such as Costa Brava, Costa Blanca or Costa Daurada , became world famous resorts, where dozens and hundreds of thousands of tourists come from all over the world come. Every year, an increasing number of tourists seeks not only to soak under the rays of the Spanish Sun, but will get acquainted with the original culture of the country, make a trip over the picturesque rural landscapes or enjoy the masterpieces of the National Kitchen of Spain.
Culture
Spain is a country with a centuries-old history, seen the epoch of the heyday and decline of several powerful states. The most ancient monuments of culture in Spain are the era of Paleolithic. These are rock paintings on the walls of the cave Altamir near the Cantabrian city Santia-del Mar . From the architecture of Iberov (the ancient tribes that inhabited the Pyrenean Peninsula in the first millennium BC) remained the ruins of giganic stone walls in Tarragona. About the Romans In Spain, the main civilian buildings are reminded - water pipes, bridges, aquedures, amphitheaters, arches. One of the Roman bridges - Alcantara was preserved on the Tahoe River. The bridge has six arches and in the middle a triumphal arch. Majestic Ruins of Roman Amphitheators in Merida and Sagunto on 6000 viewers and arches in Medisaglie and Bar, built in 107-102 BC.
Arabs were a big impact on the development of medieval Spanish art and architecture. A feature of the Moorish style is a rich decoration of the interior with geometric, vegetable and calligraphic ornaments in the Asulecho technique (or Asulekhos), which is a tile similar to the tiles. The horseshoe arches of the Moorish structures were borrowed by the Arabs at the West and. The best samples of Moorish architecture are preserved in Southern Spain, first of all, in Andalusia. The world fame received the Alhambra Palace in Granada, a mosque in Cordoba, La Hiralda Minaret in Seville.
Alhambra. View of the Komarence Tower. The mirietary courtyard was a place where official techniques were held, negotiations were conducted. In the background, a part of the Komarence tower is visible, the highest (45 m) of the Alhambra buildings. Hence the second name of the Mytovo Pit, Patio de Comares.
From France, Romanesque and Gothic architectural styles came from France. The first Romanesque churches were built in Catalonia and along the way to the shrine of the saintsangaigo de compostela. They are distinguished by semi-curvous arches and massive walls with a small number of narrow windows. Early Christian churches were built in Doromanian or Moomarab style. Gothic came to Spain at the end of the 12th century. It is characterized by fitted arches, thanks to which the windows have become higher, and the windows are wider, external supports (counterphorts), which accepted the weight of the arches. Late ("Flaming") Gothic is characterized by the wealth of a stone carved ornament. Moorish masters remaining in Spain created a special mixed Christian-Muslim style Mudjar, distinguished by developed decorativeness. A characteristic example of the Gothic Spanish Cathedral is the Cathedral of the 13th century in Leone.
By the beginning of the 14th century, the ideas of rebirth are applied to Spain in Spain, and with them the Renaissance architectural style appears, characterized by strict symmetry, using a semi-curvous arch and ancient orders. The early Spanish Renaissance is known under the name of the Placement (from the Spanish "Plater" - "Jewelery"), it is characterized by a subtle decor resembling silver jewelry. The unique monument of the planssoco is the inn of San Marcos in Leone. Baroque brought drama and movement, extravagant decor and puff sculptures to architecture. The Spanish version of Baroque "ChurrieceSko" is named after the family by the architect Churger. An example of Spanish baroque can serve as a university building in Valladolid.
Spain became famous for the Architecture of the era of Modern, the capital of which Barcelona is considered rightly. Catalan architects - and, above all, Antonio Gaudi, created its own unique language of the forms, in which the architects of the countries of the old and new world are still finding inspiration. One of the most famous creations of Gaudi is Mila House (Casal Mila) in Barcelona.
Numerous medieval castles are preserved in Spain - Paradora, currently usually used as hotels. Many pararadora are located in picturesque, quiet and cozy corners and provide excellent opportunities for both recreation and work. Now this is a whole complex of buildings and structures that combine strict architectural lines with a modern interior of the rooms.
Huge interest is the folk architecture of Spain, whose traditions are greatly different in different areas of the country. In the north, stone houses were built with canopies and wooden balconies, in Castile built houses with a wooden frame, and in the south, houses were spread from burnt and elevated clay, the walls of which reflect the sun's rays. The indispensable architectural attribute of rural areas, especially those where few rivers and constantly blow the winds, became windmills. The villages often encounter Hermitians - chapels or chapels dedicated to the local saint. In the center of any, even small, Spanish city is located main Square - Plaza Major (Plaza Mayor), on which churches are usually worthy, administrative buildings, shops and bars. On the square they arrange holidays, concerts, folk dances, bins of bulls.
Toledo. View of the city and the Tahoe River .
Spain is a country of world famous painting and literature. The influence of the Catholic Church determined the prevalence of religious themes in the medieval art of Spain, the most famous representative of which is an artist El Greco, who lived in Toledo. The classic painting of Spain is glorified by the names of Francisco Goya and Diego Velasquez. The Spaniards were both three founders of modern art - Joan (Hoan) Miro, Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dali, who became the symbols of the era of modernism. The largest museums of modern art are in Madrid (including the Prado Museum, Queen Sofia Museum), Barcelona (Museum of Picasso, Museum of Contemporary Art), Bilbao (Guggenheim Museum), Fiegers (Dali Theater-Museum) and many other cities of Spain.
Spanish literature can conduct a report of its history from the Ancient Roman writers and thinkers of Seneki, Lukan and Martzialla. The period of the Arab dominion is associated with the flourishing of literature and philosophy, in Spain, in the largest center of Muslim culture - the city of Cordove, one of the most famous representatives of Arab Aristotleism Averroes lived. In the Middle Ages, the development of the Poetry of Trubadurov (Trovadorerad) was developed, the most famous work of this genre was the "Song of My Side", as well as religious poetry, known on the priest's poem Gonzalo de Berso "Wonders of the Virgin". The first major prosaic works on Castilian language, which became the basis of the Spanish literary language, belong to the 14th - 15th centuries. In the 16th century, the golden age of Spanish literature begins, the genre of Pikarsky - the Plutovsky novel appears. By the same period, the work of Miguel de Cervantes Saoveaven - his Don Quixote was published in 1605.
Satiro-novelist Francisco de Cuevedo and Poet Louis de Gongor. The drama of Spain is glorified by the names of Lope de Vega and Calderon. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Spanish literature was influenced by French. The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the flourishing of new Spanish literature, later associated with pan-European existentialism. His most important representatives - Miguel de Unomuno, Pio Baroha, Antonio Machado. The founder of the modern Spanish theater is Ramon Maria Del Valle-Inclan. Huang Ramon Jimenez became the laureate of the Nobel Prize in the field of poetry. The poetry of the poet Federico Garcia Lorca received worldwide fame. In the 20th century, Latin American Hispanic literature was born, which became a global phenomenon, "the authors such as Jorge Louis Bruges and Gabriel Garcia Marquez still remain among the most readable.
Holidays and customs
Spain is a country of cultural traditions, most of them are associated with Catholicism, the main religion of the country, but some are rooted in the pre-Christian past. The centuries-old religious traditions are so strong in Spain that the overwhelming majority of the Spaniards strictly observes church rites, posts, celebrates holidays. Of the religious holidays in Spain, the passionate week is popular, which is noted since the days of Middle Ages. In all cities and villages of the country are brightly decorated religious processions. Separate pictures are played out of the life of Christ - crucifixion and resurrection. The best processions of the passionate week are famous Seville, Malaga, Murcia and Valladolid .
Spain. Girls from Malaga's outlook.
Granada. Holy Week.
In late May or beginning of June, Pentecost celebrates, the most magnificent festival takes place in El Rosio. The feast of the Body of Christ is widely marked, especially in Valencia, Toledo and Granada. June 24, in honor of John the Baptist throughout Spain and especially on the Mediterranean coast, firebirds harness; The feast of St. Peter - the patron saint of fishermen celebrate on June 29th. Traditionally, the celebrations are Christmas Eve (Night Labor) and Christmas (Navidad). In Christmas days in Spain, Belenes can be found everywhere - similarities of the Bethlehem Vertep with the painted figures of the holy family, shepherds and animals. On New Year's Eve in Madrid, crowds of people are going and congratulated each other on Puerta del Sol Square. In February or March In Spain, a carnival takes place similar to Maslenitsa. The largest carnivals go to Santa Cruz de Tenerife (on Canary Islands) "According to his scope, they do not inferior to the carnival in Rio de Janeiro and in Cadis.
Spanish Maslenitsa Ends on the eve or on the first day of the great post of sordanki funeral, symbolizing the winter. The end of winter is celebrated by a large festival of fire in Valencia (Fallas), on which huge figures from papier-mache are burned as a sign that the old one should give way to a new one. The brightest of numerous fistes in honor of the reconquists - costume battles "Mavrov" and "Christians" in the alkalo, passing in the spring. Andalusia's largest festival is the Great April Fair in Seville.
Flamenco. Spain.
Kierd in Madrid.
The tradition of Spain is a bull battlefield, Corrida. This is a spectacle, leaving the roots in the depths of the Mediterranean. She was also known in Crete during the flourishing period of the Minoan culture (2000-1450 BC), as evidenced by the frescoes depicting dancers and bulls. Corrida in Spain is carried out almost everywhere, but its largest center - Seville. The main acting face of the Corrida is Matador, killing a bull. The most famous Matadors, for example, Juan Antonio Ruis, became national heroes of Spain.
The traditional Spanish cuisine is very diverse - so much that it is quite difficult to find something in common between the exquisite marine cuisine of baskets and simple dishes of Castile. Throughout the centuries-old history of the country, the set of products changed, was replenished with new ingredients by influencing the cultures of many countries. From ancient Romans, Spain inherited olive groves and suitable for farming fields, mainly on eastern Bank; The seven centuries of the Arab dominion brought almonds in Spanish cuisine, citrus and fragrant spices that became an integral part of it. After the discovery of America, tomatoes, sweet and bitter peppers (Chilli), Zucchini (Zucchini), diverse varieties of beans, potatoes, chocolate and vanilla have become widely used in Spain. The landscape of Spain is heterogeneous - there are also mountainous plots, and arid plains, and fertile lands, cold and wet areas, hot and dry. It is not surprising that for each region is characterized by its own set of dishes and the method of their preparation.
Basque Country rich in fish and seafood from the Atlantic; There are also some meat and dairy delicacies. Dishes are served by large portions, which is generally typically for regions with a cold climate, but the rough Basque cuisine cannot be called. Dishes using the chilondron fragrant sauce based on local red sweet peppers, tomatoes, onions and garlic are typical for Navarre and Aragon. Trout from pure mountain streams of the Pyrenean Range - a favorite dish of local residents, especially with ham. Diverse and delicious Catalan cuisine; It is distinguished by unusual sauces, for example, "Romysko" or "Aloli", aromatic herbs and near dishes that have close analogues in French cuisine, for example, Sarsela is a close relative of French buuabes. Kitchen Valencia and Murcia, the most populated and rich agricultural regions of Europe, has experienced a strong Arab influence.
There are growing oranges and almonds, in spacious gardens and in rice fields, many plants are grown in the traditional Valencia Palela (fish and mollusks in it began to add relatively recently). Andalusia is the country of olive, olive oil and roast, especially from local fish and mollusks. In turn, Extremadura is an agricultural edge, and the kitchen there is appropriate - simple, all sorts of stewed dishes are common. Galicia and Asturias are famous for high-quality fish and seafood. The climate there is relatively cold and wet, respectively appetite at the locals good: they prefer warming, rolling dishes.
The Spaniards usually have breakfast in a cafe; Breakfast consists of churros, buns of bearingless text, and a large cup of hot chocolate, which makes churros. As a second breakfast, drink coffee with sweet pastries or eat a slight snack. Dinner - about 2 hours The day is often preceded by Tapas - a variety of snacks, which, as a rule, the Spaniards are eaten in the bar on the way home or in a restaurant. Around 6 pm - so-called Merree - one more light food, from 8 to 10 pm Again the tapas and in 10 hours - dinner , not so tight as lunch.
For a long time to this day Tapas It consisted of several olives or almond nuts, chopped cheeses, sausages and ham, sometimes to the tapas add sliced \u200b\u200bcubes. But currently Tapas includes almost any dishes - cold and hot, - which can only be submitted by small portions. Modern tapas can be very satisfying. Usually they are exhibited along the adjustment bar or cafes to visit customers. Famous paella In good restaurants it is preparing at least an hour, so it is better to order this dish by phone to a specific hour. One serving of this dish is quite enough for two: served on a large tray and put on the middle of the table.
