In its development, America was very different from Europe, Asia and Africa: after all, it was almost isolated from them. But here, too, states arose, civilizations flourished mayan, aztec and incaswho have achieved significant success in crafts, sciences, architecture and art.
People came to America about 25-40 thousand years ago from Northeast Asia. Gradually, they moved southward, mastering vast territories. Rare contacts with Europe did not play an important role either for America or for Europe. When in 1492 g.Columbus reached America, it was inhabited by many tribes with different levels of development; some of them created highly developed civilizations, the most famous of which are the civilizations of the Maya, Aztecs and Incas. Each of them not only relied on their own achievements, but also assimilated the cultural traditions of the conquered peoples.
Columbus decided that he was next to India and called the local people Indians. Later America received another title - New World(Unlike Of the old world- Europe, Asia and Africa).
In terms of the level of development, the states of pre-Lumbian America are comparable to the Ancient East. They used slave labor, but free farmers and artisans, united in communities, prevailed. The power of the rulers, who relied on officials, was intensified. The priests enjoyed great influence.
| Mayan pyramid. Chichen Itza |
The main occupation was agriculture, in which the Maya, the Aztecs, and the Incas achieved high efficiency, despite the absence of draft animals and the simplest tools of labor. They skillfully took into account the peculiarities of the climate and soil, created terraces for crops on mountain slopes, irrigated dry lands and drained swamps. The Aztecs created bulk island-beds in the lakes. The Indians cultivated corn, potatoes, tomatoes, cocoa and cotton.
Not a single civilization of pre-Columbian America did not know such widespread achievements in the Old World as the wheel, the gon-charm circle, and iron smelting. The Indians made jewelry and objects of religious worship from gold, silver and copper. Large animals were tamed only by the Incas - they bred a llama, which they used to transport goods and obtain wool.
The Maya, Aztecs, and Incas had different pagan religions, but their beliefs had a lot in common. Their deities were closely associated with the sky, celestial bodies and natural phenomena, therefore astronomical observations and calendar calculations became part of religious rites and were performed very carefully and with amazing accuracy. Holy acts accompanied all daily affairs. Human sacrifice played an important role.
Mayan and Aztec state
In the VII-VIII centuries. on the Yucatan Peninsula in Central America, the Mayan civilization flourished. Crafts, sciences and arts flourished in their city-states (Palenque, Chichen Itza, etc.). But later internecine wars weakened them.
North of Yucatan in the XIV-XV centuries. the mighty state was created by the Aztecs. They subdued the surrounding tribes. The power of the ruler of the Aztecs strengthened and spread throughout central part the current Mexi-ki. In their capital, Tenochtitlan, there were up to 100 thousand inhabitants.
The technique of stone construction of the Maya and Aztecs is striking. Its best examples are temples in the form of pyramids and palaces of rulers, as well as fields for ritual play into the ball.
The Maya developed a writing system based on hieroglyphs, supplemented with pictures. Among the Aztecs, drawing with elements of hieroglyphs has been known since the XIV century. Material from the site
Inca power
In the west of South America, the Incas created a powerful state. Since the XII century. the Incas ruled over their neighbors. Over time, a state with a strong central government emerged here. Its leader was considered a descendant of the Sun and bore the title Supreme Inca. The Inca power stretched from north to south for almost 5000 kilometers and conquered many peoples. Paved roads with hinged bridges and tunnels connected the capital city of Cuzco with the outskirts.
The ruler owned all the land in the state. He himself received the harvest from the "fields of the Supreme Inca", and the priests - the harvest from the "fields of the Sun". The harvest from the rest of the land was distributed among all.
The Incas created the nodular letter kippu (which means "node"). A kipu is a lace (or stick) with multi-colored laces with knots tied to it. With the help of the kipu, important information (for example, on tax collection) could be revived in memory.
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Download presentation on the Maya, Aztecs, Incas in the middle century
What prevented the establishment of close ties between the civilizations of America
Pre-Columbian America Inca history in short
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It is very extensive and, as a result, has a different name for the tribes of the Indians living on open lands... There are many of them, although European navigators used only one term for the indigenous people of America - the Indians.
The Columbus fallacy and consequences
Over time, the mistake became clear: the fact that the indigenous people are the aborigines of America. Until the beginning of European colonization in the 15th century, residents arrived at various stages of the communal-clan system. Some tribes were dominated by the paternal clan, while others were dominated by matriarchy.
The level of development primarily depended on the location and climatic conditions... In the process that followed, the countries of Europe used only the common name of the Indian tribes for a whole group of culturally related tribes. Below we will consider in detail some of them.
Specialization and life of American Indians
It is quite remarkable that the American Indians made various pottery. This tradition originated long before contact with Europeans. Several technologies were used in manual work.
Methods have been used such as sculpting on the frame and shape, trowel molding, clay cord molding, and even sculptural modeling. Distinctive feature Indians were making masks, clay figurines and ritual objects.
The names of the tribes of the Indians are quite different, because they spoke different languages \u200b\u200band had practically no writing. There are many peoples in America. Let's take a look at the most famous ones.
Names of Indian tribes and their role in American history
We take a look at some of the most famous Hurons, Iroquois, Apaches, Mohicans, Incas, Mayans, and Aztecs. Some of them were of a rather low level of development, while others impressed with a highly developed society, the level of which cannot be defined simply by the word "tribe" with such a vast knowledge and architecture.
The Aztecs retained old traditions before the Spanish conquest. Their number was about 60 thousand. The main occupations were hunting and fishing. In addition, the tribe was divided into several clans with officials. Tribute was withdrawn from the subject cities.
The Aztecs were distinguished by the fact that they had a fairly rigid centralized control and a hierarchical structure. At the highest level were the emperor and priests, and at the lowest, slaves. Also the Aztecs used the death penalty and human sacrifice.
Highly developed Inca society
The most mysterious Inca tribe belonged to the largest ancient civilization... The tribe lived at an altitude of 4.5 thousand meters in Colombia. This most ancient state has existed sinceXI to XVI centuries AD.
It included the entire territory of the states of Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador. As well as parts of modern Argentina, Colombia and Chile, despite the fact that in 1533 the empire had already lost most of its territories. Until 1572, the clan was able to withstand the attacks of the conquistadors, who were very interested in new lands.
The Inca society was dominated by an agricultural economy with terraced farming. It was a fairly highly developed society that used sewerage systems and created an irrigation system.
Today, many historians are interested in the question of why and where such a highly developed tribe disappeared.
"Legacy" from the American Indian tribes
Undoubtedly, it is clear that the American Indians have made a significant contribution to the development of world civilization. The Europeans borrowed the cultivation and cultivation of corn and sunflower, as well as some vegetable crops: potatoes, tomatoes, peppers. In addition, legumes, cocoa and tobacco were imported. We got all this from the Indians.
It was these cultures that helped reduce famine in Eurasia at one time. Corn later became an irreplaceable forage base for animal husbandry. We owe many of the dishes on our table to the Indians and Columbus, who brought “curiosities” of that time to Europe.
Introduction
The origin of ancient American civilizations has always been controversial. They were considered the descendants of the Egyptians, Trojans, and even the Carthaginians, and one of the hypotheses names ten disappeared tribes of Israel among the ancestors of the Indians. In fact, the ancestors of the Indians came from Siberia. In pursuit of the game, they crossed the ice across the Bering Strait. Eleven thousand years ago, they reached the southern tip of South America. High-level cultures have developed in part of central America (currently, it is mainly modern Mexico and Guatemala), as well as in the central part of the Andes (now Peru and the plateau region of Bolivia are located here).
The history of the state and law of ancient American civilizations is usually divided into the following categories:
- ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica
- and the ancient states of South America
Mesoamerica is the territory between South and North America. The first evidence of the appearance in Mexico of signs of dimestization (domestication) of maize dates back to the 5th century BC. In the IV millennium BC. maize farming is spreading in the Teucana Valley. The population in the Teucana valley finally switched to a sedentary lifestyle in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC.
South America - divided into:
- the Andes region (from Colombia to Chile), which includes the culture of the Incas of Peru;
- the area of \u200b\u200bthe Rainforest, mainly occupied by the Amazonian jungle; Guyana adjoins it;
- Big Chaco;
- Southern area, stretching to Tierra del Fuego.
The area of \u200b\u200bthe Andes of the ancient period can be represented as follows. People settled in the high valleys of the Andes ten thousand years ago. Hunting was not developed, people got squirrels from fishing. Agricultural culture emerges earlier than distant pasture cattle breeding. An irrigation system is created and a state that distributes water appears. The Chavin culture emerges on the northern plateau. The main deity of their cult, the jaguar or puma, has been popular in the Andean region for five hundred years.
Around 300 AD traces of the unity of the Andes region are disappearing, but agriculture is developing: new species of plants are cultivated, terrace farming is practiced.
Around AD 200 cultures, a transition period, flourish. They are theocratic, the main deity is an animal from the feline breed, human sacrifices are made to the gods, from birth the child's skull is deformed, and then throughout life, the cranium is repeatedly trepanned; the same procedure is carried out after death; the skulls of enemies are collected as trophies.
The Mochica culture erected huge temples, the most famous of which are the two pyramids, called the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon. The coastal Nazca culture, modern to the Mochica culture, has left many flattened skulls, painted and strung into garlands to make them easier to transport. On the rocks of the Palpa valley, the Nazis created huge drawings reflecting the system of astronomical knowledge and intended for contemplation by the deity from above. Towards the end of this period, the megalithic civilization of Tiahuanaco (Bolivia) exerts the same cultural influence on the peoples of the Andes as the Chavin culture had in an earlier era.
Around 1000 AD in the Andes, a socio-political system was established, reminiscent of Western feudalism. In the north, the kingdom of Chimu arises, which subjugates many valleys, in each of which its own city center is being built.
Chapter 1. The socio-political system of ancient American
civilizations
§1. Social system
Many tribes and peoples lived in America. Maya, Aztecs and Incas stood above other peoples in terms of economic development and culture.
People mayan inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula in Central America. The heyday of the Mayan civilization occurred approximately in the 3rd-9th centuries, when the Mayan state included the territory of today's Guatemala, part of Mexico, etc.
There was social stratification in Maya society. The nobility who owned the wealth acquired by trade and the ordinary peasants who cultivated the land was divided by a deep abyss. The land was owned by the communities; the community allocated a plot cleared of forest for each family. The nobility and the priests dominated over the common members. There were also slaves from captives and debtors.
In the 1st century. the Maya had city-states. Each city was headed by “ great person"- the ruler who passed on power by inheritance. He collected taxes from the local population.
The nobility lived in the center of the city in stone palaces, and on the outskirts in huts "low people" settled - peasants and artisans. Know was different and appearance... The aristocrats admired their elongated flat foreheads; with special planks, they squeezed the heads of their children to deform their skulls.
By the time the Spaniards arrived civil War almost destroyed the Mayan civilization. Some cities are overgrown with forests. The Spaniards discovered fortified cities with preserved stone buildings, market areas and temples.
The Maya were influenced by the Olmecs and some researchers believe that they are one people.
The public organization of the Maya was the clan-phratrial structures. The rulers of the kingdoms bore the title Ahav, and the centers subordinate to them were ruled by Sakhals, who came from local clans.
A special group consisted of priests who performed various functions: some were ideologues claiming power, others were shamans, scientists and healers. The Maya had hieroglyphic writing partially deciphered, a complex and accurate calendar, architecture and sculpture, dramatic art with the sacrifice of the main character. The high priest was subordinate to the Haksh Uinik.
Wars were in the nature of gods for the ruin and capture of prisoners were fought constantly, strengthening one or another city.
There is almost no dependent population. The society was based on free community members. They participated in community service and military campaigns when they were free. The basis of the economy is slash-and-burn communal farming with a change of plots.
A new type of political-territorial formations is gradually being formed: a confederation of cities with an emerging capital. Domestic slavery and slave sacrifice and the slave trade emerged.
In the XIII century. came to the territory of present-day Mexico from the north aztecs and founded the city of Tenochtitlan. Aztecs - Indian people who inhabited the territory Central America... In the XV century. they conquered other territories. By 1520, the Aztec empire stretched from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic coast, from the deserts in the north to the settlements of the Mayan Indians on the Yucatan Peninsula in the south.
The Aztec civilization was considered one of the most prosperous. The empire with a population of 15 million was governed with a high degree of efficiency.
The state was headed by a hereditary ruler. High positions were held by noble people and received salaries for the service. Everything needed was taken from the territories under control.
The Aztecs subdued neighboring tribes, forced them to pay heavy tribute and give slaves. Although the tribes were still ruled by local chieftains, Aztec governors and tribute collectors lived in the main cities.
Life in the state proceeded according to rituals, the course of which was determined by two calendars: one for the civil year, the other for the sacred.
The Aztecs worshiped many gods, but considered themselves the chosen people of the god Uitzilopochtli (the sun god), who demanded human sacrifice. They believed that this god needed a constant feeding of blood: life in the universe could be prolonged only by sacrificing prisoners.
The Aztecs fought to capture more prisoners. At one ceremony during the reign of the last king of Monte Suma II, 12 thousand captives were executed. Sometimes the Aztecs ate the limbs of their victims, and their priests wore ceremonial robes made from human skin. If a brave warrior was sacrificed, the Aztecs were convinced that his power would pass to their own soldiers.
At the same time, the Aztecs valued modesty, compassion, obedience, and hard work. They implemented a rigid legal system and severely punished crimes. Boys from noble families were sent to boarding schools, where they studied politics, law, history, music, and the art of war. Boys from families were trained in trade, craft.
According to the Aztec mythology, the wind god Quetzalcoatl, returning from the east, will cause the fall of the Aztec empire, the Spaniard conqueror E. Cortez used this prediction to claim the throne. Ruler of the aztecs
Montezuma believed that Cortez was none other than a god. Cortez took Montezuma hostage and began to rule on his behalf. In the end, the unfortunate king was stoned by his subjects, whom he tried to call for calm during the Aztec uprising. The struggle against the Spaniards continued, in 1521 Cortes captured the capital of Tenochtitlan, and then the entire empire. Thus ended the era of the Aztecs and began the era of New Spain.
At the beginning of the 16th century, when the capital of the Aztecs was the most big city in Central America, the capital became the center of South America incas Cuzco. The Incas settled there in the 12th century. The Inca state stretched for thousands of kilometers in the Andes.
The engineering prowess of the Incas, more than their weapons, brought them success in their conquests. Their roads in length and quality were much superior to those of Rome: one of them was almost 2,500 km long. However, it was not only engineering thought and political sagacity that allowed them to create such a large country. Like the Aztecs, they believed that they were entrusted with a divine mission to spread the light of the sun god.
The state was headed by an unlimited ruler - the Supreme Inca. He ruled in the name of God and had absolute power. Blood relatives of the Incas, who called themselves "sons of the Sun" (the Sun was the main god of the Incas), held the highest positions in the state.
The nobility of the conquered peoples completely obeyed the "sons of the Sun", adopted their language and ruled over their subjects according to the laws and customs of the Incas. With its help, the Incas controlled the whole country, right down to every peasant household.
The ideology of the Incas was actively spread. Children of the "sons of the Sun" were trained in special schools. In the absence of written language, they memorized information about religion, government, laws and customs of the Incas.
The population lived in communities. The community member did not have the right to leave the boundaries of the territory of the settlement without permission from the authorities. The arable land was divided into three parts: the harvest from one went to the priests, from the other to the Supreme Inca, and only one third of the harvest remained with the community members.
State system provided for the care of orphans, food storage. From state barns, food was given out to soldiers and officials, and in case of crop failures and disasters - to the victims. The families of the soldiers and those who left for public works were supported by the community.
All applicants were required to work where it was indicated: either on the ground, or on construction, or to serve in the army. Laziness was considered a serious crime, even children of five years old had to work.
Postal communication was established between parts of the vast country. Specially trained messengers-runners, who were on duty in pairs on each section of the road, conveyed messages from places to the capital. On the roads were inns and stores of supplies for the supply of troops and officials on the move.
The last rulers of the Incas declared themselves not only descendants of the sun god, but also god himself. The center of Cusco was rebuilt around the Temple of the Sun, the walls of which were covered with gold.
The Inca Empire was overrun by a handful of Spanish soldiers led by F. Pizarro. This defeat was partly a consequence of the Inca's belief in the invulnerability of the ruler of Atahualpa. All the power of the Incas was concentrated in their loyalty to the emperor, and when he was captured, his subjects were confused, not knowing whom to obey. In addition, the Incas, like the Aztecs, did not have such weapons that could withstand cannons and cavalry. For 50 years, the Spanish conquistadors expanded the boundaries of the empire so much that it was 2 times larger than Europe.The most famous civilizations of ancient America, which every educated person has heard of, are the Mayans, Incas and Aztecs. These peoples inhabited the territories of central Mexico (Aztecs), southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, western Honduras (Maya) and southern western (Inca). The grandiose architectural structures of these ancient civilizations have survived to this day. The most famous of them are the pyramids of the American Mayan and Aztec tribes. The Incas, according to scientists, did not build pyramids, although they knew how to build structures of rather impressive dimensions (such as the fortress of Sacsayhuaman).
The Maya and Aztec peoples inhabited America at different times. The heyday of the Maya civilization fell on the 7th - 8th centuries, and the Aztecs - in the 14th - 15th centuries. But both of these peoples were distinguished by a high level of development. They built big cities, used writing, and shipping was developed. The calendars of those times are surprising in their accuracy. Religion occupied a special place among the Maya and Aztec peoples. It is not for nothing that the pyramids that they erected were used for various religious rituals.
The exact age of the Mayan pyramids is unknown. These structures are made of roughly hewn stones, which are fastened with a fairly strong mortar.
The slopes of the pyramids are steps, i.e. they were built in stages - on each platform the next, smaller area was erected. This process was quite lengthy.
One of the most famous pyramids - Kukulkan, named after the main god in the mythologies of the Mayan and Toltec tribes, who was depicted as a snake with a human head. It is located in the ancient city of Chichen Itza (Yucatan Peninsula). This structure is 25 meters high and has 9 platforms. The number 9 is not accidental, it symbolizes areas of the kingdom of the dead. The pyramid is crowned with a temple. There are wide staircases on four sides, each of them has 91 steps, for a total of 364, which corresponds to the number of days in a year. The stairs themselves are divided into 18 flights - in the calendar of the Mayan tribes, there were just that many months. At the pyramid of Kukulkan, four sides clearly face south, north, west and east.
This pyramid is very popular among tourists. The thing is that twice a year on its surface you can observe very unusual phenomenon... On the equinox at 17:00, a huge image of a serpent begins to appear on the north side of the pyramid, becoming more and more clear. This effect is achieved by the sun's rays, and the illusion lasts for about 3 hours.
In the city of Chichen Itza, another pyramid was built, the base of which measures 40 x 40 meters.
Another famous structure of the Mayan tribes - ... It is located on the territory ancient city Palenque, in Guatemala. The pyramid got its name because of the huge number of different drawings and hieroglyphs. Scientists are still trying to figure out the meaning of these inscriptions. Only in this pyramid was a tomb with a sarcophagus discovered, the surface of which was also covered with drawings and inscriptions. Prior to this discovery, it was believed that the Maya did not use pyramids for burial. In the sarcophagus, the remains of a man were found, who, apparently, held a high position in society.
There is another ancient city on the Yucatan Peninsula - Uxmal. It is there that the famous ... This is one of the most impressive buildings that we have inherited from the Mayan tribes. The pyramid is 38 m high and has a flat top. The corners are rounded. This structure has been under construction for many years. Archaeological research has shown that construction lasted from the sixth to the tenth century. There are 5 temples inside the pyramid - according to the number of construction stages.
The most famous pyramids of the Aztecs
Perhaps the most impressive structure of the Aztecs - pyramid of the sunlocated on the site of the ancient city of Teotihuacan, not far from modern Mexico City. It ranks third in the world among the ancient structures, passing ahead only the Cholula pyramid of the Toltec times, and the Cheops pyramid, which is located in Egypt, near Cairo.
The Pyramid of the Sun previously rose up to 71 m (now 64.5 m), and the perimeter of the base of this grandiose structure is 893 m. It took about 3 million tons of stones to erect it. 300 years after the pyramid was built, a temple was erected on its top, which was destroyed even before the discovery of the city of Teotihuacan by the Spanish conquerors. Nowadays, many tourists visit the Pyramid of the Sun. To climb to the very top, you have to overcome the most difficult climb with a length of 248 steps, which are distinguished by their steepness. But despite all the difficulties, there are many who want to climb to the very top. After all, if you believe the legends, it is there that the so-called "place of power" is located. Thanks to positive energy flows, a person can find harmony and peace of mind.
In the north of Teotihuacan is ... This is less than the pyramid of the Sun - its height is 42 m. This five-tiered pyramid is located on a small hill. A rather wide staircase leads to the top - it is a continuation of the path that was called the Road of the Dead. During archaeological excavations in the pyramid of the moon, many remains and burials were discovered. Presumably, various rituals were performed at the top of this structure.
The Citadel is located in Teotihuacan - a square that got its name from the Spaniards. It is here that the Temple of the Feathered Serpent is located - a building built in the form of a pyramid. Its walls were decorated with stone ornaments that represented the heads of feathered snakes - from the western part they are well preserved to this day. Within the walls of this temple were found the remains of animals that were sacrificed during rituals.
The pyramids of the American Mayan and Aztec tribes have not yet been fully studied. The mysteries associated with these structures will attract scientists all over the world for a long time.
M. Stingle. Secrets of Indian Pyramids., M .: "Progress", 1982.
M. Stingle. Star worshipers. In the footsteps of the disappeared Peruvian states, M .: "Progress", 1983.
M. Stingle. Inca State. Glory and death of the "sons of the Sun", M .: "Progress", 1986.
One of the characteristic features of the art of pre-Columbian America is the existence of a huge number of different cultures, each of which possessed a special, unique style. Only in the territopia of Mexico there were about 11 thousand.
Among these cultures, three are the most significant:
Aztec Culture (Central Mexico);
Mayan culture (Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras);
Inca culture (Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador).
The culture of the Aztecs.
The culture has developed over almost four centuries, starting from the XII century. Until 1521, when the Spanish conquistadors (conquerors) destroyed the capital of the Aztecs Tenochtitlan (ancient Mexico City). Cartes, the leader of the conquistadors, fell in love with Marina (a name that came to Europe from the Aztecs), the daughter of the last Aztec leader Mantesula. Only by chance did Kartes manage to defeat the Aztecs. Wounded, he snatched the spear from the leader, and the Aztec troops began to obey him.
Most of the stone buildings of the Aztecs have come down to us badly damaged. These are primarily tetrahedral pyramids, on which temples or palaces were located. The Aztecs believed that every half century begins new period in the development of the world, and in accordance with this renovated temples and palaces. The previously built temple, together with the pyramid, was covered with several layers of masonry, so that it turned out to be inside the renewed pyramid, on the top of which another temple was being built. In one of the pyramids in Tenayuk, 8 consecutively walled temples were discovered. Sometimes palaces and temples on the peaks were built of wood, but they have not survived.
The sculpture of the Aztecs is distinguished by its rigor and schematism. They created huge cult statues, sometimes vaguely reminiscent of a person and composed of symbolic images: corn cobs, fangs, etc. For example, the statue of the Goddess of Earth and Fertility Coatlicue.
Few examples of painting have survived. Bright decorative "mosaics" of feathers glued to dense fabric and works of the finest jewelry have come down to us.
On the territory of Mexico, the bloodiest cult in the history of mankind, associated with the planet Venus, manifested itself. A wall of skulls coated with clay was found here.
Uxmal is a complex of ancient American culture. The Palace of the Rulers in Uxmal is located on an artificial platform 200170 m. Height 12 m. The palace itself has the following dimensions 98128.5 m. The upper part of the Supreme Palace is decorated with a huge relief. The main character of the relief is the god of Rain and Fertility Chuck. Chuck is an intermediary deity between God and man, this is a dwarf guardian.
There was a cult of the Feathered Serpent among the Teotihuacans, Toltecs, then among the Aztecs. People worshiped him as a donor of civilization.
Mayan culture.
A vibrant culture created by the Mayan peoples. Already in the II-III centuries. AD Maya tribes founded small city-states, headed by priests and aristocracy.
Like the Aztecs, the Mayans built their buildings on stone foundations. Two types of structures are more common: temples at the top of the pyramids; vast palaces on high stone pillars (foundations) that formed around an open courtyard. Maya houses were usually built on the ledges of a natural or artificial hill, which made their buildings seem multi-story. Mayan architecture is more picturesque and richly decorated than that of the Aztecs. The facades of the buildings were decorated with geometric patterns, reliefs and masks of deities. Sometimes the solid wall is completely hidden under the stone lace. Columns are often used. Famous monuments of this culture: the Temple of the Sun in Palenque, the Temple of the Jaguars and the Temple of the Warriors in Chichen Itza. Four staircases of 91 steps lead to the top of the Kukulkan pyramid in Chichen Itza (914 \u003d 364). At the top of the sanctuary of Kukulkan - Quetzalcoatl, there is another 365th step. The pyramid is decorated with 52 reliefs. Toltecs brought the Venus calendar and the highest calendar cycle to Mayak culture - 52 years (365 days each)
The sculpture has reached a high level of development. According to the very complicated calendar the Maya erected stone steles with reliefs every 20 years. On the front side of the pan, the figure of a deity or ruler was depicted. The other three sides were covered with hierographic inscriptions.
The Maya culture reached its highest flowering in the VIII-IX centuries. AD At this time, complex reliefs with multi-figured compositions appeared (stele Piedras Negras, 795). The Maya had palaces, temples, monasteries, observatories, courtyards, markets, ceremonial grounds, and buildings for steam baths. They created underground stone reservoirs - Chultuny. Reservoirs were carved into the rocks, connected by canals and served to accumulate rainwater. Maya built roads - sakbe (covering - lime concrete, rammed with a stone roller), but did not know the wheels.
Maya have no central government, no capital, all cities are equal.
The best examples of Mayan painting are the frescoes of the Bonampak temple (opened in 1946). Three rooms of the temple are covered with murals depicting preparation for battle, battle and the celebration after the battle. The craftsmen used clean, bright colors. The color correlated with certain symbols. The ancient inhabitants of Mexico, noticing a red figure in the composition, knew that they were talking about the god of the Earth, Xipetoteca, and thus about the eastern sky with its meanings of sunrise, youth and spring.
The high priest of the Mayak state stood over the priests performing the rite of sacrifice, the priests-prophets and the priests-servants of the Sun. He was also the Master of Hierographic Writing, Chief Astrologer and Astronomer.
Inca culture.
The Inca Empire existed for a relatively short time from the beginning of the 15th century. until 1532, when the country was captured by the Spanish conquerors. The writing of the Incas is not completely deciphered. The capital was the city of Cuzco, famous for its Golden Garden (perhaps the craftsmen who created it were from the Chimu people).
The architecture is simple and unadorned. Temples, dwellings, fortresses are built of huge stone blocks (up to 350 tons in weight), very precisely fitted to each other, but not fastened with binding solutions (Saksauaman fortress). The houses had powerful stone walls and cramped interiors. Most houses are windowless and illuminated through doors. According to the description of travelers, the buildings were originally decorated with wide belts of thick gold plates. The use of precious metals not as money, but as a decoration material is typical of the Incas. For example, in the Temple of the Sun in the city of Cuzco, several rooms are decorated with images of the Sun, Moon, rainbow and stars made of gold, silver and precious stones. Unlike Central America, the Incas built pyramids up to 40m high. not for temples, but for burials. Trapezoidal entrances and niches are characteristic features of Inca architecture.
Stone sculpture was almost never developed among the Incas.
The art of making and painting ceramics has been developed. It is conventionally divided into several periods. In the first period, the vessels depict scenes of battle, fishing, mythological subjects. In the second period, the paintings practically disappear, but the vessels themselves turn into real sculpture. Most often, the vessels were made in the form of a human head, sometimes conveying individual features. Later, vessels appear in the form of animals, fruits and plants.
The main food of the Incas is potatoes (including canned ones), corn, pumpkins. The Incas grew coca, a narcotic plant. In the empire, there was a clear division of the population into the elite and the bulk of the inhabitants. According to the law, the Inca (ruler of the empire) married his sister, who became his lawful wife and, as a rule, the mother of the heir. In addition to the main wife, he had a harem and could live with any of the nuns of the monasteries, since he was the embodiment of the sun god on Earth. The heir was appointed during the life of the ruler by the ceremony of public hair cutting. The future heir helped his father and studied management. There were 10 age groups of the population, each of which had specific rights and responsibilities. Group 1: infants. Group 2: children under 2 years old. Group 3: playing children. Group 4: children 9-12 years old. Group 5: adolescents 12-18 years old. Group 6: 18-25 years old - serving in the army. Group 7: 25-50 years old - married and housekeepers. Group 8: 50-80 years old - old people. Group 9: 80 years and older - deaf old people. Group 10: patients.
There were no uprisings in the state. This social system provided security for old age. This is why it is sometimes called "Indian socialism." There was no money in the empire, only natural exchange in the market. Gold is used as a decoration. The army is well trained and equipped (clubs with stone or metal ends). There were wonderful roads and post office. The messengers ran from parking lot to parking lot about two kilometers, as a result of the relay race, 2000 km were covered in 3 days. The Incas composed poems that were later recorded by the Jesuits. Widespread nodular kipu letter, which can be counted up to 1,000,000. Nobility studied at universities for 4 years, where she studied the Quechua language, solar religion, nodular kipu, history and military science. The Incas weaved dense fabrics with a density of 80–45 threads / cm (modern parachute fabric has a density of 60–30 threads / cm). They performed operations, including craniotomy.
The last Inca was called Tupaca Omaru.
Additional information.
The oldest cultures in Peru date back to the 3rd millennium BC.
Close to lima there was a culture at that time whose representatives did not know about the existence of metals, but erected clay and stone temples on artificial platforms. Known for the Temple of the Crossed Hands. Later, this sign is found in Colombia.
Culture Chavin, associated with the cult of the Jaguar was distributed in the late II - middle of the Ith. BC.
Culture Nasca(mid-2nd century BC) corresponds to the valleys of the Ica, Pisco and Nazca rivers. Here was found "wooden Stonehenge Peru" - the sanctuary of Eskucheria. It consists of hundreds of dried mesquite trunks. The center of the composition is a square formed by 12 rows of 12 columns each. Found giant images in the Nazca desert. The Pampa de Nazca Gallery includes platforms, lines, spirals, human and animal "figuras" (geoglyphs). The head of a giant bird (length 120m) is directed towards the point of sunrise on the day of the winter solstice. According to M. Stingle, the Indians buried the deceased with a triangular balloon. The deceased at sunset was placed in a wicker basket, the balloon rose above the sea and hid behind the horizon.
Culture Mochica (I-VII centuries BC) left behind the pyramids of the Sun and the Moon. In Pampa Grande. The Pyramid of the Sun has a base of 342159 m. Gold items are unique. The legend of the existence of a golden garden and eyewitness accounts of a room with five thousand golden butterflies, each of which weighed less than a gram and soared in the air with slight fluctuations in the air, has reached us. The butterflies were melted down by the conquerors. As a result, they received 4 kg of 700 g of pure gold. Around Lake Titicaca, many chulps have been found - funerary towers of rectangular and cylindrical, extended upwards.
According to legend, the founder of the Chimu culture sailed to Peru from the north with his detachment on rafts. His name is Naimlan. "Hiring" means "bird" or "flight". Chimu built the city of Chan-Chan with an area of \u200b\u200b18 square meters. km. The city is surrounded by two rows of defensive walls and is divided into 10 blocks 450-300 m. In many respects, the customs that reigned in the Chimu state differed little from the customs of the XXV century. Inca. In the 1460s. two cultures collided - the coastal Chimu culture that worshiped the moon, and mountain culture Inca, who worshiped the Sun. The victory remained for the second. Clay reliefs depicting birds, fish, lizards, foxes, ornaments have survived from the Chimu culture. Since ancient times, the supreme deity in Peru has been depicted in the frame of an arch-snake, surrounded by predators. The arch symbolized the rainbow, the Milky Way, thunder, the firmament.
Culture Olmekov- one of the cultures of ancient Mexico. San Lorenzo, the capital of the Olmecs, was abandoned for unknown reasons in 900. La Venta became the second capital of the Jaguar Indians. Huge stone heads were found in La Venta.
Tribes Chol and Zeltal left in Palenque (Mexico) the famous ensemble, in which the tower of the palace, a 4-storey building, was also an observatory.
The culture of the Toltecs is interesting. The Pyramid of the Morning Star in Tula (Tollan) has been preserved.
