Greek colonies in Crimea
Modern Feodosia is the only city in the Northern Black Sea region that bears its real ancient Greek name. The history of the city began in the middle - second half of the 6th century BC. e. It was founded by settlers from the Asia Minor city of Miletus, at the final stage of the "Great" Greek colonization. The favorable location on the sea trade routes, the beautiful harbor and the proximity of agricultural areas predetermined the rapid growth and economic prosperity of the polis.
In the historical fate of Feodosia, as well as of the whole Crimea, an outstanding role was played by the "Great" Greek colonization, which took place in the archaic era of the history of ancient Greece, which fell on the 8-6th centuries BC. The Greeks (Hellenes) brought civilization to the peninsula and the most advanced culture within the ancient oecumene. What made people leave their native lands and embark on a very dangerous journey in search of a new homeland?
The soils of Hellas are not fertile (only in a few of its regions bread was grown in sufficient quantities), hence the great need of the Greeks for imported bread. The country is not rich in metals and wood either. Meanwhile, in the archaic era, Hellas experienced an economic upsurge, the intensively developing craft experienced a shortage of raw materials, the growing sea trade required markets to sell goods (olive oil, wine, handicrafts) and buy everything that the Greeks needed (bread, raw materials).
The rapid development of the economy led to a sharp increase in the population, society was unable to feed the "extra" people. The Archaic era was also the time of the formation of states (policies) on the territory of Balkan and island Greece. This process was accompanied by the loss of land plots by many ordinary peasants and even aristocrats, hence the growth of property inequality and, which is inevitable in such circumstances, the socio-political struggle. Polis were slave states, their economies needed cheap labor, the production of slaves became another stimulus for the colonization movement.
Peasants who lost their land plots or did not receive them at home took part in the search for a new homeland; among the settlers were also artisans, traders and representatives of the clan nobility (some of them hoped to improve their financial situation, others left their native lands for political reasons, having suffered defeat in the intensified struggle within the civilian collectives of the emerging policy states). The number of immigrants was small - from one hundred to a thousand people. The colonies (Greek - apoikia) did not depend on the metropolis politically, although they usually maintained friendly relations with them and various ties.
The bulk of the Greek colonies in the Northern Black Sea region appeared in the 6th century BC. On the western, Crimean coast of the Kerch Strait (Greek - Cimmerian Bosporus), the cities of Panticapaeum (Kerch), Nympheus, Mirmekiy, Tiritaka, Porfmiy, Parthenius, Acra, Kitay were founded, on the east coast - Phanagoria, Hermonassa, Kepy, Sindskaya Gavan. East of Feodosia, on the slope of Mount Opuk - Kimmerik. In the southwestern Crimea - Kerkinitida (Evpatoria), Chersonesos (Sevastopol). The Greeks, who knew a lot about navigation and sea trade, chose a convenient bay on the western coast of the Feodosia Gulf; a port is located in a natural harbor; a pier was built to protect ships from waves and winds. The port city has become a safe haven for ships and the most important shopping center on the northern coast of the Black Sea.
Greeks who were not spoiled by the gifts of nature in their homeland were attracted to the region of Theodosia Gulf and much more. In ancient times, this territory was richer than in our time, and the newcomers were able to take advantage of such gifts of nature as the so-called non-industrial reserves of iron and coal, wood, various types of stone, sand, clay. Salt was mined in neighboring lakes. They were engaged in fishing and hunting.
And most importantly - agricultural work: they grew bread, grapes, garden and vegetable crops, raised livestock. For the extraction of fresh water, we used all the available not very rich reserves: rivers, fresh lakes, sources, built drainage facilities and water pipes. The center of the colony was the Quarantine Hill. Mountains and sea protected her from possible dangers. It was easy to surround a small hill with a ring of defensive walls, behind which, if necessary, the entire population of the city could hide.
The colonists had different relationships with the locals, it all depended on what places the newcomers claimed and what was the level of development of the aborigines, whether they were interested in contacts with new neighbors, in the exchange of goods. Ancient authors associated Feodosia with the Scythian and Taurian tribes.
In those places where the Scythians were in contact with the Taurus (this includes the region of Feodosia), there was an intensive process of assimilation of these two ethnic groups. Excavations at the Feodosia Quarantine have yielded fragments of polished stucco ceramics from the late 6th - 4th centuries BC, and one find dates back to the 7th - early 6th century BC. These dishes were not made by the Greeks. But we cannot say whether there was any barbarian settlement on the site of the future Feodosia - there is clearly not enough evidence.
Beautiful places of Crimea
Almost simultaneously with the appearance of the Scythians in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region, in the 7th century. BC e. colonization by the Greeks of the eastern and southern coasts of Crimea, the western and north-western coasts begins Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and some regions of the Northern Black Sea region, mainly along the Dnieper-Bug estuaries.
Meotida, as the ancient Greeks called the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Pontus Euxine (Black Sea) attracted them with its wealth of fish, mild climate and convenient bays for ships.
Apparently, not all Greeks lived well in their homeland. Some were oppressed by the rich and noble landowners; others were prevented from doing handicrafts and selling their products; still others were involved in riots and in protests against their masters, the peasants suffered from land shortages, so they had to seek refuge outside their homeland, in remote regions, and they moved to the Crimea, the Northern Black Sea region.
The metropolis of the first Greek colonists of the Crimea was Miletus, which itself was a Greek colony on the Black Sea coast in Asia Minor. Then immigrants began to arrive from other cities of Asia Minor - Heracles, Meota and Teos. And even later, the authorities of the metropolis began to expel here their guilty citizens from Athena and other Greek cities.
Initially, the Greeks founded small coastal settlements, such as trading posts, and were engaged in trade and exchange affairs with the local population, attracting them with bright fabrics, unknown objects, and women's jewelry.
It is unlikely that the local population greeted them enthusiastically. The first colonists in the Crimea had to meet with the Taurus, who inhabited the coastal strip at that time. Many Taurus felt the danger threatening them and did not want to voluntarily part with their land, so the meetings of the first colonialists sometimes ended tragically. Therefore, settling down on the sea coast of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea coast, the Greeks at first, for the sake of safety and prevention of unnecessary clashes with the local population, did not move far from the sea coast. In addition, in order to interest the aborigines, they resorted to cunning; at the first stage, trade was carried out with some benefit for them, which lulls their vigilance and gains confidence.
The trade exchange gradually grew, the local population got used to the merchants who arrived from overseas, and, not seeing the danger, began to calmly relate to their settlements.
Over the centuries, these small settlements with berths for small merchant ships began to grow into larger ones, and over time they formed powerful walled cities. They settled mainly in the estuaries big rivers or in convenient sea bays. At different times over the centuries, such large cities-colonies arose: at the mouth of the Bug - Olbia, at the mouth of the Dniester - Tire, at the mouth of the Don - Tanape, and on the site of modern Kerch - Panticopeia, opposite Panticapaeum across the strait on the Taman Peninsula - Phanagoria. Almost simultaneously with Panticapaeum on the eastern coast of Crimea - Feodosia, somewhat later Myrmekia, Mimfey, Nympheus, Taritaka, Chimerik and a number of smaller cities.
In the west of Crimea, Chersonesos appears, not far from modern Evpatoria - Kirkinitada, which became a transshipment trading base with the metropolis in the west of Crimea.
All these cities became the main Greek colonies and centers of trade, the development of crafts and the spread of ancient culture.
Each of them arose at different times and each went down in history in its own way.
Panticapaeum, Theodosia, Olbia emerged in the 6th century. BC, Kerkinitida (Evpatoria) - at the junction of the 6th and 5th centuries. The founding of these cities dates back to the period when the Greek merchants from Miletus began to actively explore the coast of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Growing up, these cities turned into city-states, and their relationship with the metropolis began to develop as partnerships, and they became less dependent on it.
PANTICAPEIA - founded by Greeks from Miletus, the largest city in Asia Minor at that time. It is believed that Panticapaeum also had a prehistory. Even the name of the city indicates this, it is not at all of Greek origin. It is believed that in one of the ancient local dialects it means "fish way". The city was known under the name "Panticapaeum" twenty six centuries ago, but as a small settlement it existed much earlier. Now the city of Kerch stands in its place. Prior to that, depending on who was under whose rule it was called Bospor, Cherkio, Korchev, Cherzeti.
During its existence, this city was an intermediary transshipment base between Scythia and Greece, the center of international trade in the water area east coast Crimea, a fortress that held back and repelled the onslaught of nomads, was the capital of the Bosporus kingdom or simply a run-down provincial town.
But at the same time, he always remained the center of the Kerch Peninsula and everything that happened on this peninsula was connected with this city.
THEODOSIA. There are several different assumptions about the beginning of the city, most of them are similar to legends. One of them says: in the VI century. BC. Milesian merchants sailed on ships to the shores of the Crimea. At sea they were caught by a strong storm and heavy ships laden with goods were thrown by the wind like chips. Desperate merchants lost all hopes of salvation and prepared for death, and suddenly, the ships were thrown into a cozy sunny bay, where there was no storm, and the houses of a small village were white on the high bank. Not believing their salvation, the joyful merchants raised their hands to heaven and shouted: "Oh, Theodosia!", Which translated from Greek meant: "Oh, given by God!" This enthusiastic cry remained the new name of a small village on a high bank, which was previously called Ardavda.
The landed merchants founded their colony here, calling it Theodosia. The convenient location of the city on the shore of the saving bay, on a busy trade route, quickly promoted Feodosia to the number of major ports in the world. The city with its grandeur and luxury began to compete with the best ancient cities in the world.
According to Strabo, the port could accept up to 100 ships. Wheat alone was exported through this port annually up to 22,500 tons.
KERKINITIDA is a city of ancient Greek colonizers, it was founded by them on the territory of a convenient bay, in the west of the Crimean peninsula, therefore, soon after its foundation, it became a transshipment trading base for Greek merchants with the metropolis.
On the western outskirts of the city of Evpatoria, near the children's sanatorium "Chaika", the remains of an ancient settlement, founded by the Greeks, have been preserved. It is believed that at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th centuries. BC. during the Greek colonization of the western coast of Crimea, the ancient city of Kerkinitida arose on this place. It became a major port, trading with Athens, Sinop, Rhodes and crimean cities Chersonesos Panticapaeum. The first written reports about him belong to Hecateus of Miletus, then they are mentioned by Herodotus, Ptolemy, Arrian.
On the territory of the settlement, archaeologists have discovered unique works of ancient masters - a bronze sculpture of an Amazon and a bas-relief of Heracles, which speak of the high culture of the ancient inhabitants of Kerkinitida. In the IV century. BC. the city became a part of the agricultural chora (district) of the ancient Chersonesos.
OLVIA was founded on the banks of the Dnieper-Bug estuary. Archaeologists have found its remains near the village of Parutino, south of the city of Nikolaev.
During the excavations of all the above cities, the remains of residential quarters, defensive walls, towers, gates, burials, many household items and women's jewelry were found. In addition, during the excavations of Olbia, the remains of temples, artisan workshops, the remains of baths and agora were found.
KIMMERIK - also founded in the 5th century. BC. on the southern coast of the Kerch Strait, named after the Cimmerian Bosporus. It was a connecting port with the Taman Peninsula of the Caucasus. The remains of defensive walls, houses, and utility structures were found.
TANAIS - was founded in the first quarter of the 3rd century. BC e. at the mouth of the Don River. This is confirmed by the excavations of the Nedvigov settlement of the Nizhne-Don archaeological expedition of the Ukrainian SSR. Many amphorae, earthen vessels for wine and grain, roof tiles with the brands of the craftsmen were found. These findings allow us to draw a conclusion about the economic and trade ties of Tanais with the cities of the Bosporus kingdom and the metropolis.
The descendants of the founders of these cities, modern Greeks, can be proud of the courage and dedication of their ancestors, who founded new lands - the coast of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, bringing them closer to the culture of ancient Hellas, which at that time stood at a high level of world civilization. During colonization, they were more humane and tolerant of the local population than other conquerors.
The Hellenic civilization spread not only among the subjects, but also among the neighboring peoples and, above all, among the Scythians.
From the first years after the founding of the Greek merchants, the Greek discoverers in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, they immediately began to enter into trade contacts with the early Scythians who appeared from the East. Initially, they treated the Scythians arrogantly, considering them "barbarians", putting into this word a concept meaning "a man with an incomprehensible speech." Moreover, the Greeks attributed to the "barbarians" everyone who did not speak their language and led a lifestyle less cultured, in their opinion, than they.
But centuries passed and the attitude towards the Scythians changed, also because many of them took what was useful from the Greeks and what they considered "cultural" for themselves, thus enriching their lives with examples of Greek culture, thereby raising their rating in the face of the Greeks ... In addition, it was profitable to trade with them, mediating with Athens, ravaged by wars.
At a cheap price, they bought grain, animal skins, wool, honey, fish, timber, and sold to the metropolis at a higher price. Scythians were sold beautiful weapons, various household items, items for decorating Scythian dwellings, painted vases, grape wine, olive oil - and much more, without which the Scythians, having entered the stage of a higher culture, could no longer do, bought in Greece much cheaper.
Having entered into closer contact with the Scythians, Greek merchants began to penetrate with their goods far to the north, covering the lands of modern Kiev, Poltava and Kharkov regions. For example, in the Lubyanka region, the remains of Greek temples were found: Dionysus, Apollo, Artemis, which indicates that there were already many Greek colonists in these parts.
During archaeological excavations in Scythia, the remains of settlements and burial grounds, coins of Greek Black Sea cities, Greek painted utensils for grain, wine and oil, jewelry made by Greek craftsmen are found. This indicates that the peoples who lived here, acquiring goods from the Greeks, gained their culture, studied the art of Greek masters, various crafts. Some tribes completely switched to their customs, accepted their religious beliefs.
All Greek colonial cities were built according to the model and, as it were, according to the tradition of the metropolis. They were small in size, compact city-policies (city-states). These were a kind of small independent republics with a center in the city and cultivated fields around, which provided the city with food. This is reflected in the Greek peculiarity, which was expressed in a dislike for large kingdoms and empires.
Each city-polis lived on its own, but in cases where they were threatened by a serious danger from the outside, they united to jointly repel the enemy.
Bosporan kingdom
The temporary unions of the cities-colonies more than once ensured them victories over a strong and insidious enemy, but life predicted the need for closer cohesion and unification of individual cities into a single kingdom.
In 480 BC. on the initiative of the ruling elite of Panticapaeum, a large slave-owning state arose, named after the Cimmerian Bosporus Strait - the Bosporus kingdom. It was named so because the lands on both sides of this strait were under the rule of the newly formed state.
Of the Meotian tribes, the largest were the Sindi, who settled on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and the Taman Peninsula. In the V-IV centuries. BC. it created an independent state of Sindiku, which also included the Dandarii and Doshi tribes.
However, the state of Sindik did not last long; when the Bosporus kingdom was formed, it became part of it.
The Greek cities, having united into a single state, could already resist external, more powerful enemies - the tribes of wild nomads and the Scythians, who were pressing from the east and north, and to some extent, dictate their terms to them.
The first rulers of the Bosporan kingdom were from the Archaeanaktids dynasty, who were in power from 480 to 438. BC. Initially, the rulers, in imitation of Athens, bore the republican title - archon, and later they began to call themselves kings. Little is known about the rule of this dynasty and its kings, except that they were the creators of the Bosporus kingdom with a slave-owning form of government.
In 438 BC, as a result of a coup d'état, the Spartokid dynasty came to power, the first king of which was Spartok I, the organizer of the coup.
The Spartokid dynasty was of Thracian origin, from the local ellized nobility, but from Thrace. Spartok I, becoming king, created the royal guard, staffed mainly from the Thracians.
The most prominent statesmen of this dynasty, who called themselves kings, whose names have been preserved by history, except for Spartok I (438-433 BC), were Satyr, Leukon I (399-369 BC) , Perisad I, Persis I and his son Eumelus, who reigned on the throne as a result of strife.
Life on the very edge of the ancient world was still tense, hectic for the Bosporus kingdom and was in constant struggle with the warlike nomads Scythians who settled in the Crimea and the Taurus. This tension especially intensified after the Sarmatians appeared in the Northern Black Sea region, who pressed the Scythians and began to directly threaten the Bosporus kingdom. Therefore, having united into a single state, it was easier for them to organize defense: to build defensive structures, erect walls, ramparts, ditches, maintain military garrisons.
The unification of various ethnic groups into a single state contributed to their cultural and economic rapprochement, served as an impetus for the development at a higher level of handicraft production in cities, agriculture and animal husbandry in rural areas, increased the volume of trade with neighbors, distant countries, including the metropolis.
An active period of ethnic and cultural rapprochement of the Bosporus kingdom began. This rapprochement was especially noted between the Greeks and the Scythians. Mixed so-called Hellenic-Scythian settlements began to form.
This period in the history of the Bosporus kingdom is well confirmed by archaeological finds. Archaeological research of Crimea began soon after its conquest by Russia. The first excavations were carried out in Kerch in 1816-1817, which gave a lot of new information about the history of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. This was followed by excavations of other ancient cities and burial mounds of the Crimea. Based on these findings, found during excavations at the site of the ancient Panticapaeum, Chersonesos, Olbia and other cities of the Bosporus kingdom, one can judge the high culture of this period, as well as the relationship of the peoples of the Bosporus kingdom, their trade, economic and cultural relations with the outside world.
No less important discovery made during excavations of the ancient Bosporus city of Mimfei, south of Kerch, in 1982, multicolored plaster was discovered that had fallen off the wall of one of the sanctuaries, built in the first half of the 3rd century. BC. On the plaster, decorated with transverse bright yellow and red stripes in the center, various inscriptions have been preserved, among which there are lengthy texts concerning the gods Aphrodite and Apollo - the patrons of the seas. The fresco also has many different designs dominated by sailing ships. The inscriptions reflect the sides of the private and public life of the ancient Nympheus during the reign of Perisad II. The main place on the fresco is occupied by a warship - a trière, a ship with three tiers of oars, called "Isis", named as seen in honor of the goddess Isis.
There is reason to believe that the ship was a diplomatic vessel that brought Egyptian ambassadors to the Bosporus to discuss some important issues of trade between Egypt and the Bosporus and strengthen friendly relations with the Bosporus kingdom.
During the reign of kings from the Spartokid dynasty, the borders of the state expanded to the east and west, strengthened its political and international position, received further development crafts, art, trade. Under them, the Bosporan kingdom maintained a well-armed and trained army. Many neighboring cities and peoples were captured and conquered.
Under Leukon I, Theodosia was annexed, which had a convenient location on a busy trade route, and was at that time one of the major ports of the world. It was entered with their goods by ships not only of Greek merchants, but also of many other, even very distant countries. The luxury and splendor of the architecture of Feodosia competed with the best cities of the ancient world. All this attracted the attention of the rulers of the Bosporus kingdom. Levkon I, seeing in the person of Theodosius a serious rival and dangerous rival, decided to put an end to this. In 393 BC. he took possession of the prosperous city by force and annexed it to his state.
Under the Spartokids, a large and strong navy was created, with the help of which Pontus Euxine (Black Sea) was cleared of pirates who attacked ships plying between the ports of the Bosporan kingdom and Hellas.
After that, the Bosporan Kingdom not only continued the trade tradition of city-states, but also intensified trade exchange with the metropolis. Leukon I encouraged this trade in every possible way, but especially with bread. His decree is known, prescribing, first of all, to load Greek ships and not impose duties on them. Strabo testifies: King Leukon sent 2,100,000 medims of grain to Athens (medim is 51.5 liters). In addition to bread, furs, animal skins, honey, wax, fish, domestic animals and cheap labor were sent to the metropolis - slaves captured in battles with local and neighboring tribes.
In difficult circumstances for the metropolis, the Spartokids helped her, but they themselves, if necessary, resorted to her help. There was a profitable partnership mutual assistance.
Under the Spartokids, the Bosporan kingdom reached great prosperity and power, especially its capital Panticapaeum. Having close relations with the metropolis and other cities and states of the ancient world, it was not inferior to them in beauty and architectural design. The center of the city was a mountain 90 m high, later named Mount Mithridates in honor of the late king Mithridates VI. Around this mountain the city is upset. As in the present, the mountain was surrounded by streets - terraces with retaining walls-crepes. On the top, surrounded by powerful walls, stood the Acropolis - upper town... On the northern slope, a building was erected for the city authorities - Pritania. Panticapaeum had good running water and sewerage. In fact, at that time Panticapaeum became the political and economic center of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region.
Findings during archaeological research indicate the cultural flourishing of Panticapaeum. The frescoes of the Stasov crypt (as the archaeologists called it) on the northern slope of the mountain depict battle scenes showing the battles of the Bosporians with the Taurus and Sarmatians.
Of particular interest is the fresco of the famous crypt of Demeter, the goddess of agriculture and fertility of the Hellenic world. It is an outstanding painting monument of that era. It suffered greatly during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945).
Having reached a climax in the development of military power, the Bosporan rulers began to have ambitious plans: to unite all the Black Sea peoples under their rule.
But this was not destined to come true. First of all, because the cities that became part of the Bosporus kingdom still remained polis (city-states). They recognized the central power of Panticapaeum, but retained their self-government and even administrative and economic isolation. The rulers of these cities were not inclined to participate in the military adventures of the kings. In this sense, the Bosporan kingdom was more a union of isolated cities than a monarchical state.
The Bosporan kings achieved military power, but could not achieve the political unity of the city-policies, and a city like Chersonesos completely isolated itself from them into an independent republic.
This was the first and main obstacle to the implementation of the aggressive plans of the Spartokids.
The second obstacle was that over the Bosporus kingdom there was a constant threat of invasion from the Sarmatians, who had seized the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and came close to the Crimea.
The third obstacle was the emergence on the southern coast of the Black Sea and Asia Minor of a more powerful Hellenic state - the Pontic kingdom, whose rulers had the same aggressive plans.
To all this, it must be added that the fulfillment of the predatory desires of the Spartokids was hampered by constant combat clashes with the Taurus, the Scythians, who formed their state in the steppe part of the Crimea, and Chersonesos, who did not want to be subordinate to the Bosporus kingdom.
Agora - among the ancient Greeks - a national assembly, as well as the area where it took place. On the sides of the agora, temples, government buildings, porticos with trade shops were built. (author's note)
Archon - in ancient Greece - the highest official in Athens. (author's note)
Isis - in ancient Greek mythology - the goddess of heaven, earth and hell - the wife of Ovaris. (author's note)
- 66.66 KbGREEK COLONIES IN THE CRIMEA. BOSPORIAN KINGDOM. HERSONES. SAMMATY, PONTIAN KINGDOM AND ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE CRIMEA. VII century BC - 3rd century.
In the middle of the VIII century BC, the Greeks appeared in the Black Sea region and in the northeast of the Aegean Sea. Lack of arable land and metal deposits, political struggle in the policies - Greek city-states, an unfavorable demographic situation forced many Greeks to look for new lands for themselves on the coasts of the Mediterranean, Marmara and Black Seas. Living in Attica and in the region of Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor, the ancient Greek tribes of the Ionians were the first to discover a country with fertile land, rich nature, abundant vegetation, animals and fish, with ample opportunities for trade with local tribes of "barbarians". Only very experienced sailors, who were the Ionians, could sail in the Black Sea. The carrying capacity of Greek ships reached 10,000 amphorae - the main container in which food was transported. Each amphora contained 20 liters. A Greek merchant ship was discovered near the port of Marseille off the coast of France, which sank in 145 BC. e., 26 meters long and 12 meters wide.
The first contacts between the local population of the Northern Black Sea region and Greek sailors were recorded in the 7th century BC. e., when the Greeks did not yet have colonies on the Crimean peninsula. In a Scythian burial ground on Mount Temir near Kerch, a beautifully painted Rhodes-Milesian vase, made at that time, was discovered. The inhabitants of the largest Greek city-state of Miletus on the banks of the Euxine Pontus founded more than 70 settlements. Emporia - Greek trading posts - began to appear on the shores of the Black Sea in the 7th century BC. BC, the first of which at the entrance to the Dnieper estuary on the island of Berezan was Borisfenida. Then in the first half of the 6th century BC. e. Olbia appeared at the mouth of the Southern Buga (Hypanis), Tiras appeared at the mouth of the Dniester, and Feodosia (on the shore of the Feodosia Gulf) and Panticapaeum (on the site of modern Kerch) on the Kerch Peninsula. In the middle of the 6th century BC. e. in the eastern Crimea, Nympheus (17 kilometers from Kerch near the village of Geroyevka, on the shore of the Kerch Strait), Cimmerik (on the southern coast of the Kerch Peninsula, on the western slope of Mount Onuk), Tiritaka (south of Kerch near the village of Arshintsevo, on the shore of the Kerch Bay ), Mirmekiy (on the Kerch Peninsula, 4 kilometers from Kerch), Kitey (on the Kerch Peninsula, 40 kilometers south of Kerch), Partheny and Parthia (north of Kerch), in the western Crimea - Kerkinitida (on the site of modern Evpatoria ), on the Taman Peninsula - Hermonassa (in the place of Taman) and Phanagoria. On the southern coast of Crimea, a Greek settlement arose, called Alupka. The Greek city-colonies were independent city-states that did not depend on their metropolises, but maintained close trade and cultural ties with them. When the colonists were sent, the city or the leaving Greeks themselves chose from their midst the head of the colony - the oikist, whose main duty during the formation of the colony was to divide the territory of the new lands between the Greek colonists. On these lands, called chora, there were lots of citizens of the city. All rural settlements of the choir were subordinate to the city. Colonial cities had their own constitution, their own laws, courts, minted their own coins. Their policy was independent of the policy of the metropolis. The Greek colonization of the Northern Black Sea region mainly took place in a peaceful way and accelerated the process of historical development of local tribes, significantly expanding the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of ancient culture.
Around 660 BC e. was founded by the Greeks at the southern mouth of the Bosporus of Byzantium, to protect the Greek trade routes. Subsequently, in 330, the Roman emperor Constantine on the site of the trading city of Byzantium, on the European coast of the Bosphorus, founded the new capital of the state of Constantine - "New Rome", which after a while began to be called Constantinople, and the Christian empire of the Romans - Byzantine.
After the defeat of Miletus by the Persians in 494 BC. e. the colonization of the Northern Black Sea region was continued by the Dorian Greeks. Immigrants from the ancient Greek city on the southern coast of the Black Sea of \u200b\u200bPontic Heraclea at the end of the 5th century BC. e. on the southwestern coast of the Crimean peninsula was founded in the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Sevastopol Tauric Chersonesos. The city was built on the site of an already existing settlement and among all the inhabitants of the city - Taurians, Scythians and Dorian Greeks, at first there was equality.
By the end of the 5th century BC. e. Greek colonization of Crimea and the Black Sea coast was completed. Settlements of the Greeks appeared where there was the possibility of regular trade with the local population, which ensured the marketing of Attic goods. The Greek emporias and trading posts on the Black Sea coast quickly enough turned into large city-states.The main occupations of the population of the new colonies, which soon became Greco-Scythian, were trade and fishing, cattle breeding, agriculture, and crafts associated with the production of metal products. The Greeks lived in stone houses. The house was separated from the street by a blank wall; all buildings were placed around the courtyard. Rooms and utility rooms were illuminated through windows and doors overlooking the courtyard.
From about the 5th century BC e. Scythian-Greek relations began to be established and developed rapidly. There were also raids by the Scythians on the Greek Black Sea cities. It is known that the Scythians attacked the city of Mirmeki at the beginning of the 5th century BC. e. During archaeological excavations, it was discovered that part of the settlements that were at the Greek colonies during this period died in fires. Perhaps that is why the Greeks began to strengthen their policies by erecting defensive structures. Scythian attacks could be one of the reasons that the independent Greek Black Sea cities around 480 BC. e. united in a military alliance.
Trade, crafts, agriculture, and arts developed in the Greek city-states of the Black Sea region. They exerted a great economic and cultural influence on the local tribes, while at the same time adopting all their achievements. Through the Crimea, trade was carried out between the Scythians, Greeks and many cities of Asia Minor. The Greeks took from the Scythians primarily bread grown by the local population under Scythian control, cattle, honey, wax, salted fish, metal, leather, amber and slaves, and the Scythians - metal products, ceramic and glassware, marble, luxury goods, cosmetic products, wine, olive oil, expensive fabrics, jewelry. Scythian-Greek trade relations became permanent. Archaeological evidence indicates that in the Scythian settlements of the 5th-3rd centuries BC. e. found a large number of amphorae and pottery of Greek production. At the end of the 5th century BC. e. the purely nomadic economy of the Scythians was replaced by a semi-nomadic one, the number of cattle in the herd increased, as a result distant cattle breeding appeared. Some of the Scythians settled on the ground and began to engage in hoe farming, planting millet and barley. The population of the Northern Black Sea region has reached half a million people.
Jewelry made of gold and silver found in the former Scythia - in the mounds of Kul-Obsky, Chertomlyk, Solokh are divided into two groups: one group of jewelry with scenes from Greek life and mythology, and the other with scenes of Scythian life, was obviously made according to Scythian orders and for the Scythians. It can be seen from them that the male Scythians wore short caftans, belted with a wide belt, pants tucked into short leather boots. Women dressed in long dresses with belts, on their heads they wore pointed hats with long veils. The dwellings of the settled Scythians were huts with wicker reed walls, plastered with clay.
At the mouth of the Dnieper, beyond the Dnieper rapids, the Scythians built a stronghold - a stone fortress that controlled the waterway "from the Varangians to the Greeks", from the north to the Black Sea.
In 519 - 512 BC. e. the Persian king Darius I, during his conquest to Eastern Europe, was unable to defeat the Scythian army with one of the kings Idanfirs. The huge army of Darius I crossed the Danube and entered the Scythian lands. There were much more Persians and the Scythians turned to the "scorched earth" tactics, did not enter into an unequal battle, but went deep into their country, destroying wells and burning grass. Having crossed the Dniester and the Southern Bug, the Persian army passed the steppes of the Black Sea and Azov regions, crossed the Don and, unable to strengthen anywhere, went home. The company failed, although the Persians did not fight a single battle.
The Scythians formed an alliance of all local tribes, the military aristocracy began to stand out, a layer of priests and the best warriors appeared - Scythia acquired the features of a state formation. At the end of the VI century BC. e. joint campaigns of the Scythians and ethnic Proto-Slavs began. The Chunks lived in the Black Sea forest-steppe zone, which made it possible to hide from the raids of the nomads. The early history of the Slavs does not have precise documentary evidence; it is impossible to reliably illuminate the period of Slavic history from the 3rd century BC. e. until the 4th century AD e. However, it is safe to say that over the centuries the Pre-Slavs reflected one wave of nomads after another.
In 496 BC. e. The united Scythian army marched through the lands of the Greek cities located on both banks of the Hellespont (Dardanelles) Strait and covered at one time the campaign of Darius I to Scythia, and through the Thracian lands reached the Aegean Sea and the Thracian Chersonesos.
About fifty Scythian mounds of the 5th century BC were discovered on the Crimean peninsula. e., in particular the Golden Kurgan near Simferopol. In addition to the remains of food and water, arrowheads, swords, spears and other weapons, expensive weapons, gold items and luxury items were found. At this time, the permanent population of northern Crimea increased and in the IV century BC. eh, becomes very significant.
Around 480 BC e. the independent Greek city-states of the Eastern Crimea united into a single Bosporan kingdom, located on both banks of the Cimmerian - Kerch Strait Bosporus. The Bosporan kingdom occupied the entire Kerch Peninsula and Taman up to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Kuban. The largest cities of the Bosporus kingdom were on the Kerch Peninsula - the capital of Panticapaeum (Kerch), Mirliky, Tiritaka, Nympheus, Kitay, Cimmerik, Theodosia, and on the Taman Peninsula - Phanagoria, Kepy, Hermonassa, Gorgipia.
Panticapaeum, an ancient city in the Eastern Crimea, was founded in the first half of the 6th century BC. e. Greek immigrants from Miletus. The earliest archaeological finds in the city date from this period. The Greek colonists established good trade relations with the Crimean royal Scythians and even received a place for the construction of the city with the consent of the Scythian king. The city was located on the slopes and at the foot of a rocky mountain, now called Mithridatova. Grain supplies from the fertile plains of eastern Crimea quickly made Panticapaeum the main trade center in the region. The convenient location of the city on the coast of a large bay, a well-equipped commercial harbor allowed this policy to quickly take control of the sea routes passing through the Kerch Strait. Panticapaeum became the main transit point for most of the goods brought by the Greeks for the Scythians and other local tribes. The name of the city is translated, perhaps, as "fish way" - the Kerch Strait teeming with fish. Minted his own copper, silver and gold coins. In the first half of the 5th century BC. e. Panticapaeum united around itself the Greek colonial cities located on both banks of the Bosporus of the Cimmerian - Kerch Strait. Understanding the need for unification for self-preservation and the realization of their economic interests, the Greek city-states formed the Bosporus kingdom. Soon after that, to protect the state from the invasion of nomads, a fortified rampart with a deep ditch was created, crossing the Crimean peninsula from the city of Tiritaka, located at Cape Kamysh-Burun, to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov. In the VI century BC. e. Panticapaeum was surrounded by a defensive wall.
Until 437 BC e. The kings of the Bosphorus were the Greek Milesian dynasty of Archeanaktids, the ancestor of which was Archeanakt, the Oikist of the Milesian colonists who founded Panticapaeum. This year, the head of the Athenian state, Pericles, arrived at Panticapaeum at the head of a squadron of warships, making a detour of the Greek colonial cities with a large squadron to establish closer political and trade ties. Pericles negotiated grain deliveries with the Bosporan king and then with the Scythians in Olbia. After his departure to the Bosporan kingdom, the Archaeanaktids dynasty was replaced by the local Hellenized Spartokid dynasty, possibly of Thracian origin, which ruled the kingdom until 109 BC. e.
In his biography of Pericles, Plutarch wrote: “Among the campaigns of Pericles, his campaign to Chersonesos was especially popular (Chersonesos in Greek means peninsula - A. A.), who brought salvation to the Hellenes who lived there. Pericles not only brought with him a thousand Athenian colonists and strengthened the population of the cities with them, but also made fortifications and barriers from sea to sea across the isthmus and thus set obstacles to the raids of the Thracians who lived in multitudes near Chersoneea, and put an end to the continuous, difficult war, from which This land was constantly suffering, which was in direct contact with the barbarians-neighbors and filled with bandit gangs, both borderline and those located within its borders.
King Spartok, his sons Satyr and Leukon, together with the Scythians as a result of the war of 400 - 375 BC. e. with Heraclea of \u200b\u200bPontic, the main trade rival was conquered - Theodosia and Sindica - the kingdom of the Sindi people on the Taman Peninsula, located below the Kuban and Southern Bug. The Bosporan king Perisad I, who ruled from 349 to 310 BC e., from Phanagoria, the capital of the Asian Bosporus, conquered the lands of local tribes on the right bank of the Kuban and went further north, beyond the Don, capturing the entire Azov region. His son Evmel managed, having built a huge fleet, to clear the Black Sea of \u200b\u200bpirates that hindered trade. In Panticapaeum there were large shipyards, which were also engaged in the repair of ships. The Bosporan kingdom had a naval fleet, which consisted of narrow and long high-speed triremes, which had three rows of oars on each side and a powerful and strong ram on the bow. Triremes were usually 36 meters long, 6 meters wide, and the draft was about a meter deep. The crew of such a ship consisted of 200 people - rowers, sailors and a small detachment of marines. There were almost no boarding battles then, triremes at full speed rammed enemy ships and sank them. The ram of the trier consisted of two or three sharp spear-shaped tips. The ships developed a speed of up to five knots, and with a sail - up to eight knots - about 15 kilometers per hour.
In the VI - IV century BC. e. The Bosporan kingdom, like Chersonesos, did not have a standing army; in the event of hostilities, the troops were assembled from the militias of citizens armed with their own weapons. In the first half of the 4th century BC. e. in the Bosporus kingdom under the Spartokids, a mercenary army is organized, consisting of a phalanx of heavily armed hoplite warriors and light infantry with bows and darts. The hoplites were armed with spears and swords, and their protective equipment consisted of shields, helmets, bracers and greaves. The cavalry of the army consisted of the nobility of the Bosporus kingdom. At first, the army did not have a centralized supply, each horseman and hoplite was accompanied by a slave with equipment and food, only in IV BC. e. a wagon train appears on carts, which surrounded the soldiers during long stops.
Short description
BOSPORIAN KINGDOM. HERSONES. SAMMATY, PONTIAN KINGDOM AND ROMAN EMPIRE IN CRIMEA
The city, whose name is translated from Greek as "beautiful harbor", arose on the shores of the Uzkaya Bay in the 4th century BC. e. By the end of the century, he fell into dependence on Chersonesos, and in the III century BC. e. - in the sphere of Scythian interests. Strengthening the Scythians forced the Greeks to significantly update the defensive line of the settlement, building into it a fortress wall with towers near the bay. However, the measures taken did not save the city - in the II century BC. e. he nevertheless passed into the hands of the Scythians. At the end of the 2nd century BC. e. Kalos Limen became part of the state of Mithridates VI, but after his death he returned to the Scythians. The end of the settlement's existence dates back to the 1st century AD. BC: It is believed that it was completely destroyed by the nomadic tribes of the Sarmatians invading from the northern steppes.
Kulchuk
High relief "Feasting Hercules", found in 2008 at the Kulchuk settlement. Stored in the Kalos Limen Museum in the village of Chernomorskoye
A settlement on the southern coast of the Tarkhankut Peninsula (2.5 km south of the modern village of Gromovo) arose in the 4th century BC. e. and became one of the largest in the Chersonesus state. Like many other Black Sea cities, it was forced to repel the constant attacks of the Scythian tribes who occupied some areas of the steppe Crimea. During the Greco-Scythian conflicts, Kulchuk changed hands several times, but nevertheless remained a major trading point. The Scythians built their own fortification system here - a rampart and a moat with stone facing. The last owners of the settlement in the ancient era were the Scythians - under them in the 1st century AD. e. life in this place died out, as researchers believe, due to drought and the threat from the Sarmatian tribes. In the Middle Ages, when the Crimea was under the rule of the Khazar Kaganate, a settlement arose again on Kulchuk, now Khazar.
Beliaus
Another settlement founded in the 4th century BC. e. immigrants from Chersonesos. It was a block of five estates, enclosed by stone walls, along which farm buildings were located. At the beginning of the 2nd century BC. e. Belyaus was captured by the Scythians, who built, as in Kulchuk, a rampart and a stone-faced ditch. In the second half of the 1st century BC. e. life on Beliaus was dying out - a few residents reappeared in the settlement only in the 3rd century AD. e. During the Great Migration of Peoples (IV-V centuries AD), the Huns stayed in this place, and the Khazars became the last inhabitants of Belyaus.
Kara-Tobe
Defensive tower
Settlement on west coast Crimea was, like many others, founded in the IV century BC. e. and then included in the Chersonesos state. But, unlike other cities, early Greek buildings were practically not preserved here: the surrounding areas were poor in stone, and therefore the buildings that had served their time were immediately dismantled in order to erect new structures. At the beginning of the 2nd century BC. e. the settlement fell into the sphere of influence of the Scythians, and Scythian structures arose on the site of the Greek estates. The Scythians were driven out by the troops of Mithridates VI, but after the death of the Pontic king they returned to the Black Sea settlements, among which was Kara-Tobe. About 20 A.D. e. the settlement perished in a fire - residents in a hurry left their homes, not even having time to save the utensils. After that, life on Kara-Toba was restored, but never reached the previous level. During the confrontation between the Scythians and Rome, which in the third quarter of the 1st century AD. e. came to the aid of Chersonesos, the inhabitants left Kara-Tobe without a fight. At the end of the 1st century A.D. e. a small settlement arose again there, but at the beginning of the 2nd century AD. e. the life of the settlement finally died out.
Chersonesus Tauride
Polis was founded in 529 BC by immigrants from Pontic Heraclea and for a long time existed as a Greek colony. Over time, it turned into the capital of the state, to which many Black Sea cities subordinated. But the problem was posed by the Scythian tribes, with whom Chersonesos was forced to wage constant wars, which caused enormous harm to its economy. In the end, Chersonesos resorted to the help of the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator - and was eventually absorbed by his power. After the death of Mithridates, Chersonesus became part of the Roman Empire, and in the 5th century AD it submitted to Byzantium. However, despite the consistent dependence on the three empires, the city of Chersonesos until the beginning of the XIII century remained the largest political and cultural center of the Northern Black Sea region. With the weakening of Byzantium, Muslim and nomadic tribes became more active in the region, which repeatedly plundered the city until in 1399 the Golden Horde Temnik Edigei completely destroyed Chersonesos.
Panticapaeum
Ruins of pritaney, city deliberative body in Ancient Greece
The city on the banks of the Cimmerian Bosporus, on the site of modern Kerch, was founded in the 7th century BC. e. immigrants from Miletus. In the 540s BC. e. Panticapaeum led a military confederation that gathered the surrounding Greek poleis, which found it difficult to resist the nomads who attacked them alone. In the 5th century BC. e. in Panticapaeum, the Archaeanaktids dynasty reigned, and then the Spartokid dynasty, who turned the confederation into the Bosporus state, and Panticapaeum - into a huge prosperous city (its territory grew to 100 hectares). At the end of the 2nd century BC. e. The Bosporan kingdom lost its former power and submitted to the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator. However, this did not greatly damage Panticapaeum, which has now become the capital of another state. Mithridates annexed a huge territory to his kingdom - apart from the Black Sea region, Asia Minor, Colchis and Great Armenia entered there - but he began to be at enmity with Rome. The outbreak of wars turned out to be unsuccessful for him - as a result, fleeing from the Roman troops, Mithridates took refuge in his own palace in Panticapaeum and, seeing that the enemy troops were approaching the city, committed suicide.
Panticaley Khankai (Greek Παντικάπαιον) was founded on the site of modern Kerch by immigrants from Miletus at the end of the 7th century BC. e., at the time of its heyday it occupied about 100 hectares. The Acropolis was located on a mountain called Mithridates today. The main patron deity of Panticapaeum since the founding of the settlement was Apollo, and it was to him that the main temple of the acropolis was dedicated. The construction of the most ancient and grandiose by the standards of the Northern Black Sea region, the building of the temple of Apollo Ietra was completed by the end of the 6th century. BC e. In addition, later next to the palace of the Spartokids there was a temple in honor of Aphrodite and Dionysus. Over time, the whole city was surrounded by a powerful system of stone fortifications, superior to the Athenian one. In the vicinity of the city there was a necropolis that differed from the necropolises of other Hellenic cities. In addition to the common ground burials for the Hellenes at that time, the Panticapaeum necropolis consisted of long chains of mounds stretching along the roads from the city to the steppe. On the southern side, the city is bordered by the most significant ridge of mounds, now called Yuz-Oba - one hundred hills. Under their embankments, representatives of the barbarian nobility are buried - Scythian leaders, who exercised a military and political protectorate over the city. Burial mounds still constitute one of the most striking sights in the vicinity of Kerch. The most popular of them are Kul-Oba, Melek-Chesmensky, Golden and especially the famous Tsarsky.
The history of Panticapaeum as a city began at the end of the 7th century BC. e., when on the shores of the Bosporus of the Cimmerian (Kerch Strait), the ancient Greek colonists founded a number of independent city-states (policies), which in the 40s. VI century BC e. military confederation. The purpose of the interpolis union was to oppose the indigenous population - the Scythians. Panticapaeum was the largest, most powerful and probably the first. This is indicated by the fact that since the end of the 40s. VI century BC e. Panticapaeum minted its own silver coin, and from the last third of the 70s. IV century BC e. - and gold.
The city of Feodosia was founded by Greek colonists from Miletus in the 6th century BC. e. The ancient name of the city was Kaffa, mentioned during the time of Emperor Diocletian (284-305).
From 355 BC e. Kaffa was supposedly part of the Bosporus kingdom. According to some estimates, ancient Kaffa was the second most important city in the European part of the Bosporus kingdom with a population of 6-8 thousand people. Economic prosperity was the reason for the outbreak of war between Theodosia and the Bosporus. In 380 BC. e. the troops of tsar Leukon I annexed Theodosia to the Bosporus kingdom. As part of the ancient Bosporus, Feodosia was the largest trading port in the Northern Black Sea region. From here merchant ships with grain departed. The fortified center of Feodosia - the acropolis - was located on the Quarantine Hill.
The city was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th century AD. e.
Chersonesus Tauric, or simply Chersonesos (ancient Greek Χερσόνησος - ἡ χερσόνησος) is a policy founded by the ancient Greeks on the Heracles peninsula on the southwestern coast of Crimea. Nowadays, the Chersonesos settlement is located on the territory of the Gagarin district of Sevastopol. For two thousand years, Chersonesos was a large political, economic and cultural center of the Northern Black Sea region, where it was the only Dorian colony. Chersonesos was a Greek colony founded in 529/528. BC e. immigrants from Heraclea Pontic, located on the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea. It is located in the southwestern part of Crimea, near the bay, which is currently called Karantinnaya. In the earliest layers of Chersonesos, archaeologists have found a significant number of shards (fragments) of archaic black-figure ceramics, which date back to no later than the 6th century BC. e.
A little over a hundred years after the founding of Chersonesus, its territory already occupied the entire area of \u200b\u200bthe peninsula lying between Karantinnaya and Pesochnaya bays (translated from Greek “Chersonesos” means peninsula, and the Greeks called the southern coast of Crimea Taurica (the country of Taurus)).
10. Social and political life and state structure of Chersonesos.
State Office
The bulk of the free population of Chersonesos was made up of Greeks, with the Greeks being Doryans. This is indicated by epigraphic monuments, which, up to the first centuries of our era, were written in the Doric dialect. The characteristic features of the latter is the use of: α instead of y, for example, in the words δάμος-δ- ^ ιος, βουλά, -βοολή, Χερσόνασος instead of Χερσόνησος, etc.
But, along with the Greeks, Taurus and Scythians lived in Chersonesos. Scythian names are found on amphora handles and in epigraphic monuments (ΙΡΕ I 2, 343). One of the Chersonesus ambassadors in Delphi, who received a proxying there, has a patronymic Σκοθα ;. The same person is apparently named in the land sale act (ΙΡΕ I 2, 403). Thus, some people from the indigenous population not only lived in Chersonesos, but also enjoyed civil rights there. It is difficult to say whether this was an exception or, on the contrary, a mass phenomenon. In any case, there is no doubt that Chersonesos was closely connected with the local population, and did not stand in isolation from it.
The dominant class in Chersonesos was made up of slave owners: landowners, workshop owners, merchants, as well as small peasants and artisans. The oppressed and exploited "e-class" were slaves who came from the indigenous population; "Slave owners and slaves were the first major division into classes." 1 In addition, depending on Chersonesus, there was a Scythian population who lived in the territory belonging to Chersonesos. Savmaka is convincing evidence that the Scythians were exploited by the Greeks.
During the period under review, there was a democratic republic in Chersonesos. The forms of state bodies and the general nature of the state structure of Chersonesos have much in common with the state structure of Heraclea and her metropolis - Megar. 1 The main source for studying the state structure of Chersonesos are epigraphic monuments - inscriptions on marble slabs. Valuable documents are the inscriptions issued on behalf of the state: honorary decrees, proxies, treaties, acts, etc. One of the most important monuments of Chersonesos is the oath dating back to the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd century. BC e. (IPE I 2, 401). Until now, it was generally accepted that the oath represents an oath, which was taken by young men who reached the age of majority - ephebes, who subsequently received the rights of citizenship, that the oath lists all those duties that every citizen had to observe. 2 Acad. SA Zhebelev 3 believes that all citizens of the state should have taken the oath after the attempt to overthrow democracy was eliminated. This new understanding of the text of the oath gives us the opportunity to learn about the class struggle that took place in Chersemes at a fairly early period, which makes the oath an even more valuable monument.
Political life
Despite the fact that the state system of Chersonesos was called "democracy", the leading role in the political life of the city gradually passes into the hands of representatives of the most prosperous part of the population. Participation in government was not paid and therefore was practically inaccessible for those who lived only on the results of their labor. As follows from the honorary decrees and dedicatory inscriptions of Chersonesos, the actual power in the state is gradually transferred to several families, and the Chersonesus democracy, as in Olbia, becomes a democracy only for a small circle of wealthy citizens.
Political life in ancient city has always been closely associated with the religious. Temples stood out in the architectural decoration of the city. Unfortunately, as a result of subsequent rebuilding and redevelopment of the city territory, all ancient temples were destroyed and did not survive. However, we know from the honorary inscriptions that there were several temples in the city. The main shrine of Chersonesos from the 4th century BC. e. became the sanctuary of the Virgin with a temple and a statue of this deity. In general, the religious life of the city at that time was rich and varied. At the head of the official pantheon, judging by the citizens' oath, were Zeus, Gaia, Helios and Virgo. In addition to the temple in the city not far from Chersonesos, on Cape Feolent or on the Lighthouse Peninsula, there was another temple of the Virgin. In this temple, according to ancient Greek legends, the priestess was Iphigenia - the daughter of Agamemnon, the leader of the Trojan campaign of the Greeks, who was sacrificed to him. There was also a temple to the Virgin in Chersonesos itself.
11.Bosporus kingdom. State structure and socio-economic life. Savmak's uprising
Bosporus kingdom (or Bosporus, Vosporus kingdom (N.M. Karamzin), Vosporus tyranny) is an ancient state in the Northern Black Sea region on the Bosporus Cimmerian (Kerch Strait). The capital is Panticapaeum. Formed around 480 BC. e. as a result of the unification of Greek cities on the Kerch and Taman peninsulas, as well as the entry of Sindica. Later it expanded along the eastern coast of Meotida (Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov) to the mouth of the Tanais (Don). From the end of the 2nd century BC. e. as part of the Pontic kingdom. From the end of the 1st century. BC e. post-Hellenistic state dependent on Rome. It became part of Byzantium in the 1st half. VI century Known from Greco-Roman historians. After the middle of the 7th century BC, Greek settlers appeared on the northern coast of the Black Sea, and by the beginning of the second quarter of the 6th century BC. e. develop a significant part of the coast, with the exception of the southern coast of Crimea. The first colony in this area was the Taganrog settlement, founded in the second half of the 7th century BC, located in the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Taganrog. Most likely, the colonies were founded as apoikia - independent policies (free civil groups ). Greek colonies were founded in the Bosporus region of the Cimmerian (Kerch Strait), where there was no permanent local population. The permanent population was present in Crimean mountains, where the tribes of the Naurians lived, the Scythians periodically roamed the steppes, around the Kuban River lived semi-nomadic Meots and Sindi farmers. At first, the colonies did not experience pressure from the barbarians, their population was very small, and there were no defensive walls near the settlements. Around the middle of the VI century. BC e. fires were recorded on some small monuments, including Mirmekia, Porfmia and Torik, after which small fortified acropolis appeared on the first two of them. Conveniently located, with a good commercial harbor and therefore reached a significant level of development, Panticapaeum, presumably, became the center around which the Greek cities of both banks of the Kerch Strait united into an interpolis union. At present, the opinion has appeared that initially he managed to unite around him only the nearby small towns, and on the other side of the strait, the center was founded in the 3rd quarter. VI century BC e. Fanagoria. Around 510 BC e. in Panticapaeum, the temple of Apollo of the Ionic order was built. Apparently, on behalf of the sacred union of cities that arose around the temple, a coin with the legend "ΑΠΟΛ" was issued. Whether this union was equal to the political one, how it was organized, who was part of it is unknown. There is a hypothesis linking the issue of these coins with Phanagoria.
Socio-economic life
The population of large territories of the Bosporus kingdom was at different stages of socio-economic development and social relations. The slave-owning mode of production reigned here, in connection with which society was divided into free and forced people. The ruling elite included the royal family and its entourage, officials of the central and local government apparatus, shipowners, slave traders, owners of land plots, craft workshops, wealthy merchants, representatives of the tribal and military nobility, priests. The owners and managers of the land were the Bosporan rulers and large landowners. There was state and private ownership of land. The Bosporus state was inhabited by free middle-class citizens who did not have slaves, foreigners, as well as free communal peasants (Pelata). The latter were the main payers of taxes in kind for the right to use land and mainly bore the burden of duties in favor of the state and the local aristocracy. In addition, the peasants were obliged to participate in the militia during the attack of the nomadic tribes on the Bosporus kingdom. The lower level of the social ladder was traditionally occupied by slaves, divided into private and state. The work of state slaves was mainly used in the construction of public buildings and defensive structures. In tribal organizations, slavery was domestic, patriarchal. Local aristocrats widely used slave labor in agricultural farms, where bread was mainly grown for sale.
State structure
According to the historical type, the Bosporan kingdom was a slave state, like the city-states that became part of it. According to the form of government, it was one of the varieties of a despotic monarchy. From the beginning of its formation, the Bosporan Kingdom was an aristocratic republic, headed by 483 BC. there was a clan Archenaktidiv. From the middle of the 5th century. (438 BC) power passed to the Spartokid dynasty, which ruled here for three centuries. The Spartokids for a long time called themselves archons of Bosporus and Theodosia, and they were called kings by the vassal barbarian peoples. Already from the III century. BC. the double title disappears, the rulers catch themselves as kings (the Bosporan kings retained the title of archons in the 1st century BC only in relation to Panticapaeum).
The city-states, which became part of the Bosporan Kingdom, had a certain autonomy, their own self-government bodies (people's assemblies, city councils, elective offices). But already on the verge of a new era, the Bosporan kings became sole rulers, owners who call themselves “kings of kings” (with the addition of new tribes to the state, the title of the head of state - king - their ethnic name was added). in the Bosporus, the tendency towards centralization of power intensified, accompanied by the formation of a complex state-bureaucratic structure with the tsarist administration at its head.
Savmaka uprising
The uprising of the Scythians in the Bosporus state in 107 BC e. It flared up in Panticapaeum during negotiations with Diophantus on the transfer of power from the Bosporan king Perisad V to the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator (See Mithridates VI Eupator). Perisades was killed by Savmak, and Diophantus fled to Chersonesos. The rebels captured the entire European part of the Bosporus. In S. in. the Scythian population participated, consisting of dependent peasants, artisans, slaves. C. in. prevented the implementation of a political deal, with the help of which the slave-owning elite of the Bosporus, trying to find a way out of the acute crisis and preserve their class domination, tried to establish a regime of solid power, transferring it into the hands of Mithridates VI. The rebel leader Savmak became the ruler of the Bosporus. The system that was established during the reign of Savmak, which lasted about a year, is unknown. After a long preparation, Mithridates VI sent a large punitive expedition of Diophantus to Sinop. In the Crimea, it included the Detachments of Persians. The troops of Diophantus took Feodosia, passed the Kerch Peninsula and captured Panticapaeum. C. in. was suppressed, Savmak was captured, and the Bosporus state came under the rule of Mithridates VI.
